Մասնակից:Lastak/Ավազարկղ

Passiflora caerulea (blue passion flower, common passion flower) is a species of flowering plant native to South America (Argentina, Chile, Paraguay, Uruguay and Brazil). It is a vigorous, deciduous or semi-evergreen tendril vine growing to 10 m (33 ft) or more, with palmate leaves and fragrant, blue-white flowers with a prominent fringe of coronal filaments in bands of blue, white, and brown. The ovoid orange fruit, growing to 6 cm (2 in), is edible but bland.^[1]

Names

This popular and showy plant has attracted a number of common names. In Paraguay it is widely known as mburucuyá in Guaraní. Other names include blue crown, flower of five wounds, southern beauty, wild apricot, Jesus flower. The specific epithet caerulea means "blue" and refers to the blue coronal filaments.^[2] In Japan, it's called 時計草 ( Clock plant ) due to having 12 petals, a central stamens and stigmas resembling a timepieces's winding mechanism, and curly green tendrils resembling wound springs.

Description

Close-up of flower.

P. caerulea is a woody vine capable of growing to 15–20 m high where supporting trees are available. The leaves are alternate, palmately five-lobed like a spread hand (sometimes three or seven lobes), 10–18 cm long and wide. The base of each leaf has a flagellate-twining tendril 5–10 cm long, which twines around supporting vegetation to hold the plant up.

The flower is complex, about 10 cm in diameter, with the five sepals and petals similar in appearance, whitish in colour, surmounted by a corona of blue or violet filaments, then five greenish-yellow stamens and three purple stigmas. The fruit is an oval orange-yellow berry 6 cm long by 4 cm in diameter, containing numerous seeds; it is eaten, and the seeds spread by mammals and birds. It is edible to humans, but bland in flavour. In tropical climates, it will flower all year round.

Cultivation

P. caerulea is widely cultivated as a wall-climber or as groundcover. In milder temperate areas it can be grown outside, and can become invasive, the twining shoots constantly appearing unless eradicated. It has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.^[3]

Cultivars

Blue Passion Flower and Fruit

A number of cultivars have been produced from the species:-

'Chinensis' (corona filaments paler blue)
'Constance Elliott' was raised by Kucombe and Prince in Exeter, Great Britain. It has pure white, fragrant flowers; not as free-flowering as many other clones.
'Grandiflora' (flowers to 20 cm in diameter)
'Hartwiesiana' (flowers white)
'Regnellii' (very long corona filaments)

The species has been used in numerous hybrids.

Other uses

Though the fruit is edible, it is rather insipid when eaten raw. It can substitute for blackberries. A tea can be made of the flower which is said to alleviate stress and anxiety. However, tetraphyllin B and epi-tetraphyllin B, cyanogenic glycosides (which liberate hydrogen cyanide when activated by enzymes), have been found in the leaves. It is possible to boil away most of the cyanide.^[4]

In culture

The flower of the passion fruit is the national flower of Paraguay. The intricate structure of the flower has generated Christian symbolism, each part representing a different part of the Passion of Christ. See Passiflora "Etymology and names" section for more information about the symbolism.

Gallery

fruit
A closeup a blue passionflower
The flower of P. caerulea
Constance Elliot a white flower form

Կաղապար:Passiflora

References

↑ RHS A-Z encyclopedia of garden plants. United Kingdom: Dorling Kindersley. 2008. էջ 1136. ISBN 1405332964.
↑ Harrison, Lorraine (2012). RHS Latin for gardeners. United Kingdom: Mitchell Beazley. էջ 224. ISBN 9781845337315.
↑ «RHS Plant Selector - Passiflora caerulea». Վերցված է 25 May 2013-ին.
↑ DS Seiglera, KC Spencera, WS Statlerb, EE Connb, JE Dunnb, 'Tetraphyllin B and epitetraphyillin B sulphates: Novel cyanogenic glucosides from Passiflora caerulea and P. alato-caerulea', Phytochemistry, 21/9 (1982), 2277-2285.

External links

Passiflora caerulea in Topwalks

caerulea Category:Garden plants Category:Flora of Uruguay Category:Flora of Argentina Category:Flora of Brazil Category:Poisonous plants Category:Plants described in 1753

Սա Lastak մասնակցի սևագրության էջն է՝ «ավազարկղը», և մասնակցի էջի ենթաէջերից մեկն է։ Այն ծառայում է որպես սևագիր և փորձարկումների վայր։ Սա հանրագիտարանային հոդված չէ։

Ձեր անձնական ավազարկղը ստեղծելու համար սեղմեք այստեղ։

Այլ ավազարկղեր՝ Ընդհանուր ավազարկղ

Նկարում Չիլի պղպեղի տեսակներ են: Կանաչները՝ Թռչնի աչք (Bird's eye), դեղինները՝ Տիկին Ժանեթ (Madame Jeanette) և կարմիրները՝ Կայենյան պղպեղ (Cayenne peppers):

Small white variety of chili grown in Udupi district, India

Չիլի պղպեղը The chili pepper (also chile pepper or chilli pepper, from Nahuatl chīlli Կաղապար:IPA-nah) is the fruit of plants from the genus Capsicum, members of the nightshade family, Solanaceae.^[1] In Britain, Australia, Ireland, New Zealand, South Africa, Pakistan, India,^[2] and other Asian countries, it is usually known simply as the chilli.

The substances that give chili peppers their intensity when ingested or applied topically are capsaicin (8-methyl-N-vanillyl-6-nonenamide) and several related chemicals, collectively called capsaicinoids.

Chili peppers originated in the Americas.^[3] After the Columbian Exchange, many cultivars of chili pepper spread across the world, used in both food and medicine. Chilies were brought to Asia by Portuguese navigators during the 16th century.

India is the world's largest producer, consumer and exporter of chili peppers.^[4] Guntur in the South Indian state of Andhra Pradesh produces 30% of all the chilies produced in India.^[5] Andhra Pradesh as a whole contributes 75% of India's chili exports.

History

Pottery that tested positive for Capsicum sp. residues excavated at Chiapa de Corzo in southern Mexico dated from Middle to Late Preclassic periods (400 BCE to 300 CE)

Chili peppers have been a part of the human diet in the Americas since at least 7500 BCE. The most recent research shows that chili peppers were domesticated more than 6000 years ago in Mexico, in the region that extends across southern Puebla and northern Oaxaca to southeastern Veracruz,^[6] and were one of the first self-pollinating crops cultivated in Mexico, Central and parts of South America.^[7]

Peru is considered the country with the highest cultivated Capsicum diversity because it is a center of diversification where varieties of all five domesticates were introduced, grown, and consumed in pre-Colombian times. Bolivia is considered to be the country where the largest diversity of wild Capsicum peppers are consumed. Bolivian consumers distinguish two basic forms: ulupicas, species with small round fruits including C. eximium, C. cardenasii, C. eshbaughii, and C. caballeroi landraces; and arivivis with small elongated fruits including C. baccatum var. baccatum and C. chacoense varieties.^[8]

Christopher Columbus was one of the first Europeans to encounter them (in the Caribbean), and called them "peppers" because they, like black and white pepper of the Piper genus known in Europe, have a spicy hot taste unlike other foodstuffs. Upon their introduction into Europe, chilies were grown as botanical curiosities in the gardens of Spanish and Portuguese monasteries. Christian monks experimented with the culinary potential of chili and discovered that their pungency offered a substitute for black peppercorns, which at the time were so costly that they were used as legal currency in some countries.^[9]

Chilies were cultivated around the globe after Columbus.^[10]^[11] Diego Álvarez Chanca, a physician on Columbus' second voyage to the West Indies in 1493, brought the first chili peppers to Spain and first wrote about their medicinal effects in 1494.

The spread of chili peppers to Asia was most likely a natural consequence of its introduction to Portuguese traders (Lisbon was a common port of call for Spanish ships sailing to and from the Americas) who, aware of its trade value, would have likely promoted its commerce in the Asian spice trade routes then dominated by Portuguese and Arab traders.^[12] It was introduced in India by the Portuguese towards the end of 15th century.^[13] Today chilies are an integral part of South Asian and Southeast Asian cuisines.

There is a verifiable correlation between the chili pepper geographical dissemination and consumption in Asia and the presence of Portuguese traders, India and southeast Asia being obvious examples.

The chili pepper features heavily in the cuisine of the Goan region of India, which was the site of a Portuguese colony (e.g., vindaloo, an Indian interpretation of a Portuguese dish). Chili peppers journeyed from India,^[14] through Central Asia and Turkey, to Hungary, where they became the national spice in the form of paprika.

An alternate, although not so plausible account (no obvious correlation between its dissemination in Asia and Spanish presence or trade routes), defended mostly by Spanish historians, was that from Mexico, at the time a Spanish colony, chili peppers spread into their other colony the Philippines and from there to India, China, Indonesia. To Japan, it was brought by the Portuguese missionaries in 1542, and then later, it was brought to Korea.

In 1995 archaeobotanist Hakon Hjelmqvist published an article in Svensk Botanisk Tidskrift claiming there was evidence for the presence of chili peppers in Europe in pre-Columbian times.^[15] According to Hjelmqvist, archaeologists at a dig in St Botulf in Lund found a Capsicum frutescens in a layer from the 13th century. Hjelmqvist thought it came from Asia. Hjelmqvist also said that Capsicum was described by the Greek Theophrastus (370–286 BCE) in his Historia Plantarum, and in other sources. Around the first century CE, the Roman poet Martialis (Martial) mentioned "Piperve crudum" (raw pepper) in Liber XI, XVIII, allegedly describing them as long and containing seeds (a description which seems to fit chili peppers - but could also fit the long pepper, which was well known to ancient Romans).

Species and cultivars

Thai pepper, similar in variety to the African birdseye, exhibits considerable strength for its size

The five domesticated species of chili peppers are as follows:

Capsicum annuum, which includes many common varieties such as bell peppers, wax, cayenne, jalapeños, and the chiltepin
Capsicum frutescens, which includes malagueta, tabasco and Thai peppers, piri piri, and Malawian Kambuzi
Capsicum chinense, which includes the hottest peppers such as the naga, habanero, Datil and Scotch bonnet
Capsicum pubescens, which includes the South American rocoto peppers
Capsicum baccatum, which includes the South American aji peppers

Though there are only a few commonly used species, there are many cultivars and methods of preparing chili peppers that have different names for culinary use. Green and red bell peppers, for example, are the same cultivar of C. annuum, immature peppers being green. In the same species are the jalapeño, the poblano (which when dried is referred to as ancho), New Mexico (which is also known as chile colorado), serrano, and other cultivars.

Peppers are commonly broken down into three groupings: bell peppers, sweet peppers, and hot peppers. Most popular pepper varieties are seen as falling into one of these categories or as a cross between them.

Intensity

A display of hot peppers and a board explaining the Scoville scale at a Houston, Texas, grocery store

The substances that give chili peppers their intensity when ingested or applied topically are capsaicin (8-methyl-N-vanillyl-6-nonenamide) and several related chemicals, collectively called capsaicinoids.^[16]^[17] Capsaicin is also the primary component in pepper spray, a less-than-lethal weapon.

When consumed, capsaicinoids bind with pain receptors in the mouth and throat that are responsible for sensing heat. Once activated by the capsaicinoids, these receptors send a message to the brain that the person has consumed something hot. The brain responds to the burning sensation by raising the heart rate, increasing perspiration and release of endorphins. A 2008 study^[18] reports that capsaicin alters how the body's cells use energy produced by hydrolysis of ATP. In the normal hydrolysis the SERCA protein uses this energy to move calcium ions into the sarcoplasmic reticulum. When capsaicin is present, it alters the conformation of the SERCA, and thus reduces the ion movement; as a result the ATP energy (which would have been used to pump the ions) is instead released as thermal energy.^[19]

The "heat" of chili peppers was historically measured in Scoville heat units (SHU), which is a measure of the dilution of an amount of chili extract added to sugar syrup before its heat becomes undetectable to a panel of tasters; the more it has to be diluted to be undetectable, the more powerful the variety and therefore the higher the rating.^[20] The modern commonplace method for quantitative analysis of SHU rating uses high-performance liquid chromatography to directly measure the capsaicinoid content of a chili pepper variety. Pure capsaicin is a hydrophobic, colorless, odorless, and crystalline-to-waxy solid at room temperature, and measures 16,000,000 SHU.

Common peppers

Red Bhut Jolokia and green bird's eye chilies

A wide range of intensity is found in commonly used peppers:

Bell pepper	0 SHU
New Mexico green chile	0 - 70,000 SHU
Jalapeño	2,500-8,000 SHU
Bird's eye chili	100,000-225,000 SHU
Habanero	100,000–350,000 SHU^[21]

Notably hot chili peppers

Some of the world's hottest chili peppers are:

Կաղապար:Flaglist	Carolina Reaper	2.2M SHU^[22]
Կաղապար:Flaglist	Trinidad moruga scorpion	2.0M SHU^[23]
Կաղապար:Flaglist	Bhut jolokia	1.58M SHU^[24]
Կաղապար:Flaglist	Trinidad Scorpion Butch T	1.463M SHU^[25]
Կաղապար:Flaglist	Naga Viper	1.4M SHU^[26]
Կաղապար:Flaglist	Infinity chili	1.2M SHU^[27]

Uses

Culinary uses

Smoke-dried chipotle

Chilies at a market in India

Sambal is the name for chili pastes in Indonesian, Malaysian and Singaporean cuisine

Thai curry pastes contain large amounts of chilies

Chili pepper pods, which are berries, are used fresh or dried. Chilies are dried to preserve them for long periods of time, which may also be done by pickling.

Dried chilies are often ground into powders, although many Mexican dishes including variations on chiles rellenos use the entire chili. Dried whole chilies may be reconstituted before grinding to a paste. The chipotle is the smoked, dried, ripe jalapeño.

Many fresh chilies such as poblano have a tough outer skin that does not break down on cooking. Chilies are sometimes used whole or in large slices, by roasting, or other means of blistering or charring the skin, so as not to entirely cook the flesh beneath. When cooled, the skins will usually slip off easily.

The leaves of every species of Capsicum are edible. Though almost all other Solanaceous crops have toxins in their leaves, chili peppers do not. The leaves, which are mildly bitter and nowhere near as hot as the fruit, are cooked as greens in Filipino cuisine, where they are called dahon ng sili (literally "chili leaves"). They are used in the chicken soup tinola.^[28] In Korean cuisine, the leaves may be used in kimchi.^[29] In Japanese cuisine, the leaves are cooked as greens, and also cooked in tsukudani style for preservation.

Chili is by far the most important fruit in Bhutan. Local markets are never without chilies in different colors and sizes, in fresh and dried form. Bhutanese call this crop ema (in Dzongkha) or solo (in Sharchop). Chili is a staple fruit in Bhutan; the ema datsi recipe is entirely made of chili mixed with local cheese. Chili is also an important ingredient in almost all curries and food recipes in the country.

In India, most households always keep a stack of fresh hot green chilies at hand, and use them to flavor most curries and dry dishes. It is typically lightly fried with oil in the initial stages of preparation of the dish. Some states in India, such as Rajasthan, make entire dishes only by using spices and chilies.

Chilies are present in many cuisines. Some notable dishes other than the ones mentioned elsewhere in this article include:

Arrabbiata sauce from Italy is a tomato-based sauce for pasta always including dried hot chilies. Puttanesca sauce is tomato-based with olives, capers, anchovy and, sometimes, chilies.
Paprikash from Hungary uses significant amounts of mild, ground, dried chilies, known as paprika, in a braised chicken dish.
Chiles en nogada from the Puebla region of Mexico uses fresh mild chilies stuffed with meat and covered with a creamy nut-thickened sauce.
Curry dishes usually contain fresh or dried chillies.
Kung pao chicken (also spelled gong bao) from the Sichuan region of China uses small hot dried chilies briefly fried in oil to add spice to the oil then used for frying.
Mole poblano from the city of Puebla in Mexico uses several varieties of dried chilies, nuts, spices, and fruits to produce a thick, dark sauce for poultry or other meats.
Nam phrik are traditional Thai chili pastes and sauces, prepared with chopped fresh or dry chilies, and additional ingredients such as fish sauce, lime juice, and herbs, but also fruit, meat or seafood.
'Nduja, a more typical example of Italian spicy speciality, from the region of Calabria, is a soft, pork sausage made "hot" by the addition of the locally grown variety of jalapeño chili.
Paprykarz szczeciński is a Polish fish paste with rice, onion, tomato concentrate, vegetable oil, chili pepper powder and other spices.
Sambal belacan (pronounced "blachan") is a traditional Malay sauce made by frying a mixture of mainly pounded dried chillies and fermented prawn paste. It is customarily served with rice dishes and is especially popular when mixed with crunchy pan-roasted ikan bilis (sun-dried anchovies), when it is known as sambal ikan bilis.
Som tam, a green papaya salad from Thai and Lao cuisine, traditionally has, as a key ingredient, a fistful of chopped fresh hot Thai chili, pounded in a mortar.

Fresh or dried chilies are often used to make hot sauce, a liquid condiment—usually bottled when commercially available—that adds spice to other dishes. Hot sauces are found in many cuisines including harissa from North Africa, chili oil from China (known as rāyu in Japan), and sriracha from Thailand.

Ornamental plants

The contrast in colour and appearance makes chili plants interesting as a garden plant.

Black Pearl Pepper, small cherry shaped fruits and dark brown to black leaves

Black Pearl Pepper
Black Hungarian Pepper, green foliage, highlighted by purple veins and purple flowers, Jalapeno shaped fruits ^[30]
Bishop's Crown Pepper, Christmas Bell Pepper, named for its distinct three-sided shape resembling a red Bishop’s Crown or a red Christmas Bell.^[31]

Psychology

Psychologist Paul Rozin suggests that eating chilies is an example of a "constrained risk" like riding a roller coaster, in which extreme sensations like pain and fear can be enjoyed because individuals know that these sensations are not actually harmful. This method lets people experience extreme feelings without any risk of bodily harm.^[32]

Medicinal

Capsaicin is considered a safe and effective topical analgesic agent in the management of arthritis pain, herpes zoster-related pain, diabetic neuropathy, mastectomy pain, and headaches.^[33]^[34] However, a study published in 2010 has linked capsaicin to skin cancer.^[35]^[36] A 2015 cohort study in China found that eating foods containing chili peppers at least twice a week led to a 10 percent reduced mortality rate all else being equal and eating foods containing chili peppers 6 to 7 days a week had a 14 percent relative risk reduction in total mortality; there was an inverse correlation between eating fresh chilies and diabetes not found in remainder of the cohort.^[37]^[38]

Pepper spray

Capsaicin extracted from chilies is used in pepper spray as an irritant, a form of less-lethal weapon.

Crop defense

Conflicts between farmers and elephants have long been widespread in African and Asian countries, where pachyderms nightly destroy crops, raid grain houses, and sometimes kill people. Farmers have found the use of chilies effective in crop defense against elephants. Elephants do not like capsaicin, the chemical in chilies that makes them hot. Because the elephants have a large and sensitive olfactory and nasal system, the smell of the chili causes them discomfort and deters them from feeding on the crops. By planting a few rows of the pungent fruit around valuable crops, farmers create a buffer zone through which the elephants are reluctant to pass. Chilly-Dung Bombs are also used for this purpose. They are bricks made of mixing dung and chili, and are burned, creating a noxious smoke that keeps hungry elephants out of farmers fields. This can lessen dangerous physical confrontation between people and elephants.^[39]

Food defense

As birds have a lessened sensitivity to the effects of chili it can be used to keep mammalian vermin from bird seed (see Evolutionary Advantages below).

Nutritional value

Կաղապար:Nutritionalvalue Red chilies contain large amounts of vitamin C and small amounts of carotene (provitamin A). Yellow and especially green chilies (which are essentially unripe fruit) contain a considerably lower amount of both substances. In addition, peppers are a good source of most B vitamins, and vitamin B₆ in particular. They are very high in potassium, magnesium, and iron. Their very high vitamin C content can also substantially increase the uptake of non-heme iron from other ingredients in a meal, such as beans and grains.

A very large study conducted by the British Medical Journal found some indications that humans who consume spicy foods, especially fresh chili peppers, were less likely to die of cancer or diabetes.^[40]

Evolutionary advantages

Birds do not have the same sensitivity to capsaicin, because it targets a specific pain receptor in mammals. Chili peppers are eaten by birds living in the chili peppers' natural range. The seeds of the peppers are distributed by the birds that drop the seeds while eating the pods, and the seeds pass through the digestive tract unharmed. This relationship may have promoted the evolution of the protective capsaicin.^[41] Products based on this substance have been sold to treat the seeds in bird feeders to deter squirrels and other mammalian vermin without also deterring birds. Capsaicin is also a defense mechanism against microbial fungi that invade through punctures made in the outer skin by various insects.^[42]

Spelling and usage

The three primary spellings are chili, chile and chilli, all of which are recognized by dictionaries.

Chili is widely used in historically Anglophone regions of the United States^[43] and Canada.^[44] However, it is also commonly used as a short name for chili con carne (literally chili with meat). Most versions are seasoned with chili powder, which can refer to pure dried, ground chili peppers, or to a mixture containing other spices.
Chile is the most common Spanish spelling in Mexico and several other Latin American countries,^[45] as well as some parts of the United States and Canada, which refers specifically to this plant and its fruit. In the Southwest United States (particularly New Mexico), chile also denotes a thick, spicy, un-vinegared sauce made from this fruit, available in red and green varieties, and served over the local food, while chili denotes the meat dish. The plural is chile.
Chilli was the original Romanization of the Náhuatl language word for the fruit (chīlli)^[փա՞ստ] and is the preferred British spelling according to the Oxford English Dictionary, although it also lists chile and chili as variants.^[46] Chilli (and its plural chillies) is the most common spelling in Australia, India, Malaysia, New Zealand, Pakistan, Singapore and South Africa.^[47]^[48]

The name of the plant is almost certainly unrelated to that of Chile, the country, which has an uncertain etymology perhaps relating to local place names.^[49] Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, Peru, Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico are some of the Spanish-speaking countries where chilies are known as ají, a word of Taíno origin. Though pepper originally referred to the genus Piper, not Capsicum, the latter usage is included in English dictionaries, including the Oxford English Dictionary (sense 2b of pepper) and Merriam-Webster.^[50] The word pepper is also commonly used in the botanical and culinary fields in the names of different types of chili plants and their fruits.

Gallery

Immature chilies in the field
The Black Pearl cultivar has round black fruit that ripens to a bright red
Cubanelle peppers
The habanero pepper is known for its unique combination of intense flavor, aroma and heat
Scotch bonnet chili peppers in a Caribbean market
Chili peppers drying in Kathmandu, Nepal
Woman removing veins and seeds from dried chilies in San Pedro Atocpan, Mexico City
Dried chili pepper flakes and fresh chilies
Chili pepper dip in a traditional restaurant in Amman, Jordan
Dried Thai bird's eye chilies
Green chilies
Guntur chilli drying in the sun, Andhra Pradesh, India

References

↑ «HORT410. Peppers – Notes». Purdue University Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture. Վերցված է 20 October 2009-ին. «Common name: pepper. Latin name: Capsicum annuum L. ... Harvested organ: fruit. Fruit varies substantially in shape, pericarp thickness, color and pungency.»
↑ VAN TILBURG, Jo Anne. 1994. Easter Island: Archaeology, Ecology and Culture. Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press
↑ "Gardening at the Edge: Documenting the Limits of Tropical Polynesian Kumara Horticulture in Southern New Zealand", University of Canterbury
↑ «Batatas, Not Potatoes». Botgard.ucla.edu. Արխիվացված է օրիգինալից 19 May 2008-ին. Վերցված է 12 September 2010-ին.
↑ Stephen K. O'Hair (1990). «Tropical Root and Tuber Crops». In: J. Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.), Advances in new crops. Timber Press, Portland, OR. էջեր 424–8. Վերցված է 26 September 2014-ին.
↑ Spence, Jonathan D. (1993). Chinese Roundabout: Essays in History and Culture (illustrated, reprint, revised ed.). W. W. Norton & Company. էջ 167. ISBN 0393309940. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (օգնություն)
↑ Journal of Nanyang University, Volumes 5-6. Contributor 南洋大學. 新加坡南洋大學. 1971. էջ 195. {{cite book}}: horizontal tab character in |others= at position 12 (օգնություն)CS1 սպաս․ այլ (link)
↑ van Zonneveld M; Ramirez M; Williams D; Petz M; Meckelmann S; Avila T; Bejarano C; Rios L; Jäger M; Libreros D; Amaya K; Scheldeman X (2015). «Screening genetic resources of Capsicum peppers in their primary center of diversity in Bolivia and Peru». PLoS ONE. 10 (9). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0134663.{{cite journal}}: CS1 սպաս․ բազմաթիվ անուններ: authors list (link) CS1 սպաս․ չպիտակված ազատ DOI (link)
↑ Kim, Jinwung. (2012). A History of Korea: From 'Land of the Morning Calm' to States in Conflict, p. 255.
↑ Heiser Jr., C.B. 1976. Pp. 265–268 in N.W. Simmonds (ed.). Evolution of Crop Plants. London: Longman.
↑ Kyndt, Tina; Quispea, Dora; Zhaic, Hong; Jarretd, Robert; Ghislainb, Marc; Liuc, Qingchang; Gheysena, Godelieve; Kreuzeb, Jan F. (20 April 2015). «The genome of cultivated sweet potato contains Agrobacterium T-DNAs with expressed genes: An example of a naturally transgenic food crop». Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. doi:10.1073/pnas.1419685112. Վերցված է 23 April 2015-ին.
↑ «Sweet Potato Is a Natural GMO». genengnews.com. Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. Apr 22, 2015. Վերցված է 23 April 2015-ին.
↑ N.Mini Raj and K.V.Peter E.V.Nybe (1 January 2007). Spices. New India Publishing. էջեր 107–. ISBN 978-81-89422-44-8.
↑ Robinson, Simon (14 June 2007). «Chili Peppers: Global Warming». www.time.com. Վերցված է 23 October 2013-ին.
↑ Hjelmqvist, Hakon. «Cayennepeppar från Lunds medeltid». Svensk Botanisk Tidskrift, vol 89. էջեր 193–.
↑ [1] (NCAT)
↑ [2] (US Davis)
↑ «Crop Production, Worldwide, 2010 data». FAOSTAT, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2011.
↑ James Duke (1983). «Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam». Purdue University.
↑ «Internet Archive Wayback Machine». fao.org. Արխիվացված է օրիգինալից 14 February 2008-ին. {{cite web}}: Cite uses generic title (օգնություն)
↑ Bourke, R.M. and Vlassak, V.: Estimates of food crop production in Papua New Guinea, ANU Canberra, 2004
↑ http://www.foodnet.cgiar.org/market/Rwanda/reports/swtpotreportATDT.pdf |International Institute of Tropical Agriculture: Sweetpotato sub-sector market survey Rwanda, 2002, PDF
↑ WARDLE, P. 1991. The Vegetation of New Zealand. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press
↑ Joshi, Monika (11 March 2012). «Chile Pepper Institute studies what's hot». Your life. USA Today. Արխիվացված է օրիգինալից 12 March 2012-ին.
↑ Top 10 Sweetpotato Growing Counties in North Carolina, ncsweetpotatoes.com
↑ «Sweet potato, raw, unprepared, includes USDA commodity food A230». Nutritiondata.com. Conde Nast. 2013. Վերցված է 11 October 2012-ին.
↑ «Sweet potato, cooked, baked in skin, without salt». Nutritiondata.com. Conde Nast. 2013. Վերցված է 21 January 2014-ին.
↑ Dincer, C; Karaoglan, M; Erden, F; Tetik, N; Topuz, A; Ozdemir, F (Nov 2011). «Effects of baking and boiling on the nutritional and antioxidant properties of sweet potato [Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.] cultivars». Plant Foods for Human Nutrition. 66 (4): 341–7. doi:10.1007/s11130-011-0262-0. PMID 22101780.
↑ «Nutrition Action Health Letter: 10 Worst and Best Foods». Center for Science in the Public Interest. 2013.
↑ Chilies as Ornamental Plants, Seedsbydesign
↑ Bishops Crown Pepper, image, cayennediane
↑ Paul Rozin1 and Deborah Schiller, Paul; Schiller, Deborah (1980). «The nature and acquisition of a preference for chili pepper by humans». Motivation and Emotion. 4 (1): 77–101. doi:10.1007/BF00995932.{{cite journal}}: CS1 սպաս․ թվային անուններ: authors list (link)
↑ Nutritious Kenyan Sweet Potato Recipes compiled by Rhoda A. Nungo, KARi, Kakamega 1994
↑ «Culture: Chinese Sandwiches». Waze.net. Վերցված է 12 September 2010-ին.
↑ Chinese
↑ Hwang, M. K.; Bode, A. M.; Byun, S.; Song, N. R.; Lee, H. J.; Lee, K. W.; Dong, Z. (2010). «Cocarcinogenic Effect of Capsaicin Involves Activation of EGFR Signaling but Not TRPV1». Cancer Research. 70 (17): 6859–69. doi:10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-09-4393. PMID 20660715.
↑ Xavier_Romero-Frias, The Maldive Islanders, A Study of the Popular Culture of an Ancient Ocean Kingdom. Barcelona 1999, ISBN 84-7254-801-5
↑ Bakalar, Nicholas (4 August 2015). «Eating Spicy Food Linked to a Longer Life». NY Times. Վերցված է 5 August 2015-ին.
↑ Mott, Maryann. «Elephant Crop Raids Foiled by Chili Peppers, Africa Project Finds». National Geographic. Վերցված է 23 October 2013-ին.
↑ http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-34411492
↑ Diana Rattray. «Sweet Potato Casserole Recipe with Crunchy Pecan Topping». About.com Food.
↑ John Roach (11 August 2008). «Fungus Puts the Heat in Chili Peppers, Study Says». Discover Magazine. Վերցված է 13 August 2008-ին.
↑ "A Guide to Growing Pre-European Māori Kumara", Burtenshaw, M. (2009), The Open Polytechnic of New Zealand
↑ "Original Kumera", Enid Tapsell, TJPS
↑ Heiser, Charles (August 1990). Seed To Civilization: The Story of Food. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-79681-0.
↑ "Waitangi tribunal and the kumara claim", Horticulture New Zealand
↑ «Fall in exports crushes chilli prices in Guntur». Thehindubusinessline.com. Վերցված է 21 April 2012-ին.
↑ «Chilli, Capsicum and Pepper are spicy plants grown for the pod. Green chilli is a culinary requirement in any Sri Lankan household». Sundaytimes.lk. Վերցված է 21 April 2012-ին.
↑ «KUMARA». teara.govt.nz.
↑ Barrington, Mike; Downey, Robyn (18 March 2006). «Ohakune has its carrot ... and Dargaville has its kumara». The Northern Advocate. Վերցված է 24 July 2012-ին.

External links

Կաղապար:Cookbook

Վիքիպահեստ նախագծում կարող եք այս նյութի վերաբերյալ հավելյալ պատկերազարդում գտնել Lastak/Ավազարկղ կատեգորիայում։

WildChilli.EU All about Wild Chili's / Capsicums / Peppers
Plant Cultures: Chilli pepper botany, history and uses
The Chile Pepper Institute of New Mexico State University
Capsicums: Innovative Uses of an Ancient Crop
Chilli: La especia del Nuevo Mundo (Article from Germán Octavio López Riquelme about biology, nutrition, culture and medical topics. In Spanish)
Complete Chili Peppers List worldwide chili peppers list ordered by Scoville Scale

Կաղապար:Herbs & spices

Կաղապար:Use dmy dates

Category:Agriculture in Mesoamerica Category:Medicinal plants of Central America Category:Medicinal plants of South America Category:Crops originating from Ecuador Category:Crops originating from Mexico Category:Crops originating from Peru Category:Symbols of New Mexico Category:Leaf vegetables Category:New Mexican cuisine Category:Cuisine of the Southwestern United States Category:Cuisine of the Western United States Category:Crops originating from the Americas Category:Indian spices Category:Crops

Կաղապար:Infobox cultivar

A large red cayenne

Thai peppers, a cayenne type pepper

Capsicum frutescens

The cayenne pepper, also known as the Guinea spice,^[1] cow-horn pepper, red hot chili pepper, aleva, bird pepper,^[2] or, especially in its powdered form, red pepper, is a cultivar of Capsicum annuum related to bell peppers, jalapeños, paprika, and others. The Capsicum genus is in the nightshade family (Solanaceae). It is a hot chili pepper used to flavor dishes. It is named for the city of Cayenne in French Guiana.

The fruits are generally dried and ground, or pulped and baked into cakes, which are then ground and sifted to make the powdered spice of the same name.

Cayenne is used in cooking spicy dishes, as a powder or in its whole form (such as in Korean, Sichuan, and other Asian cuisine), or in a thin, vinegar-based sauce. It is generally rated at 30,000 to 50,000 Scoville units. It is also used as an herbal supplement, and was mentioned by Nicholas Culpeper in his Complete Herbal, 1653, as "guinea pepper",^[3] a misnomer for "guiana pepper".^[1]

Cultivation

Most cultivated varieties of cayenne, Capsicum annuum, can be grown in a variety of locations and need around 100 days to mature. Peppers prefer warm, moist, nutrient-rich soil in a warm climate. The plants grow to about 0.5–1 m (20–39 in) in height and should be spaced 1 m (3 ft) apart.^[4] In gardens, the plants may be planted as close as 30 cm (1 ft) apart in a raised bed. This may reduce the yield of an individual plant, but will increase yields per unit area.

Chilis are mostly perennial in subtropical and tropical regions; however, they are usually grown as annuals in temperate climates. They can be overwintered if protected from frost, and require some pruning.^[5]

Nutrition

Cayenne pepper, by weight, is relatively high in vitamin A. It also contains vitamin B₆, vitamin E, vitamin C, riboflavin, potassium, and manganese.^[6] However, given the very small amount of cayenne pepper typically consumed in a serving, it makes a negligible contribution to overall dietary intake of these nutrients.

Cayenne pepper consumption dilates the blood vessels and speeds the metabolism due to the high amounts of capsaicin. With the consumption of cayenne peppers, the amount of heat the human body puts off is influenced. In animal studies, capsaicin has the ability to boost metabolism, which in turn causes weight loss. This increases circulation and blood flow to all major organs, facilitating oxygen and nutrient delivery. Capsaicin may support a healthy energy balance^[7] while suppressing appetite. Capsaicin has been shown to increase energy expenditure, so acts as a metabolism booster and is beneficial in long-term weight loss.^[8] A correlation has been shown between substrate oxidation and capsaicin. Capsaicin treatment sustained fat oxidation during weight maintenance, but did not affect weight regain after modest weight loss. ^[9]

Cayenne pepper is also claimed to be an aphrodisiac because it contains capsaicin. It has also been shown to aid in the oxidation of adipose tissue,^[10] regulate high blood pressure, promote healthy liver function and tissue production, help regulate the digestive system, and promote healthy mucus production in the membranes that line internal organs ^[փա՞ստ].

In cuisine

Cayenne is a popular spice in a variety of cuisines. It is employed variously in its fresh form, dried and powdered, and as dried flakes. It is also a key ingredient in a variety of hot sauces, particularly those employing vinegar as a preservative. Cayenne pepper is often spread on sandwiches or similar items to add a spicy flavor.

In beverages

Beverage foods are emerging with cayenne extract as an active ingredient.^[11]^[12] One example is Bonavitas cayenne pepper energy drinks.^[13]

References

↑ ^1,0 ^1,1 Culpeper, Nicholas (1814) [1653]. «Guinea Pepper». Culpeper's Complete Herbal. David Hand (Web publication). Վերցված է 13 July 2011-ին.
↑ Therapeutic Research Faculty (2009). «Capiscum». Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database (Consumer Version). WebMD. Վերցված է 13 July 2011-ին.
↑ Robbins, Joel (1995). «Dispossessing the Spirits: Christian Transformations of Desire and Ecology among the Urapmin of Papua New Guinea». Ethnology. 34 (3): 211–24. JSTOR 3773824. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (օգնություն)
↑ Brown, Ellen (27 April 2006). «Growing: Cayenne». ThriftyFun.com. Վերցված է 13 July 2011-ին.
↑ South Devon Chilli Farm (2010). «Chilli Seed Propagation and Plant Care». South Devon Chilli Farm. Վերցված է 13 July 2011-ին.
↑ «Nutrition Facts: Spices, pepper, red or cayenne». Nutrition Data. Condé Nast Digital. 2011. Վերցված է 13 July 2011-ին.
↑ Mondo agricolo veneto - la patata americana di Anguillara
↑ Diepvens, K; Westerterp K; Westerterp-Plantenga M. «Obesity and thermogenesis related to the consumption of caffeine, ephedrine, capsaicin, and green tea». The American Journal of Psychology. 292: 77–85.
↑ Lejeune, M; Kovacs E; Westerterp-Plantegna M (2003). «Effect of capsaicin on substrate oxidation and weight maintenance after modest body-weight loss in human subjects». British Journal of Nutrition. 90: 651–659. doi:10.1079/bjn2003938.
↑ Takahashi, M; Snitker, S; Fujishima, Y; Shen, H; Ott, S; Pi-Sunyer, X; Furuhata, Y; Sato, H (Jan 2009). «Effects Of Novel Capsinoid Treatment On Fatness And Energy Metabolism In Humans: Possible Pharmacogenetic Implications». American Journal Of Clinical Nutrition. 1. 89.
↑ Latif, Ray (30 May 2011). «Extreme and Edgy Flavors». Beverage Spectrum Magazine. Bevnet. Վերցված է 13 July 2011-ին.
↑ Stanton Lee, Kendra (March 2011). «Slimming Prospects». Beverage Spectrum Magazine. Bevnet. Վերցված է 13 July 2011-ին.
↑ «Bonavitas Cayenne Pepper Energy Drink». PRWeb (USA). 30 June 2011.

External links

How spicy foods can kill cancers – BBC News

Կաղապար:Herbs & spices Կաղապար:Capsicum Cultivars

Warning: Default sort key "Cayenne Pepper" overrides earlier default sort key "Chili Pepper". Category:Chili peppers Category:Medicinal plants of North America Category:Medicinal plants of South America Category:Spices Category:Capsicum cultivars

Green bird's eye, yellow madame Jeanette, and red cayenne peppers

Small white variety of chili grown in Udupi district, India

The chili pepper (also chile pepper or chilli pepper, from Nahuatl chīlli Կաղապար:IPA-nah) is the fruit of plants from the genus Capsicum, members of the nightshade family, Solanaceae.^[1] In Britain, Australia, Ireland, New Zealand, South Africa, Pakistan, India,^[2] and other Asian countries, it is usually known simply as the chilli.