|
[[Պատկեր:First Umayyad gold dinar, Caliph Abd al-Malik, 695 CE (cropped).jpg|thumb|262x262px|Արաբերենն [[Աբդ ալ-Մալիք]] խալիֆի օրոք՝686 թվականին, դարձավ [[Օմայյան խալիֆայություն|Օմայյան խալիֆայության]] պետական լեզուն]]
== Արաբների տարածումը Մերձավոր Արևելքում==
After [[Alexander the Great]], the [[Nabataean kingdom]] emerged and ruled a region extending from north of Arabia to the south of Syria. the former originating from the Arabian peninsula, who came under the influence of the earlier [[Aramaic]] culture, the neighbouring Hebrew culture of the Hasmonean kingdom, as well as the Hellenistic cultures in the region (especially with the [[Christianization]] of Nabateans in 3rd and 4th centuries). The pre-modern Arabic language was created by Nabateans, who developed the [[Nabataean alphabet]] which became the basis of modern [[Arabic script]]. The [[Nabataean Arabic|Nabataean language]], under heavy Arab influence, amalgamated into the [[Arabic language]].
The Arab [[Ghassanid]]s were the last major non-Islamic Semitic migration northward out of [[Greater Yemen|Yemen]] in late classic era. They were [[Greek Orthodox Church|Greek Orthodox Christian]], and clients of the [[Byzantine Empire]]. They arrived in [[Theodorias (province)|Byzantine Syria]] which had a largely [[Aramean]] population. They initially settled in the [[Hauran]] region, eventually spreading to entire [[Levant]] (modern Lebanon, Israel, Palestine and Jordan), briefly securing governorship of parts of Syria and Transjordan away from the [[Nabataeans]].
The Arab [[Lakhmid]] Kingdom was founded by the Lakhum tribe that emigrated from [[Greater Yemen|Yemen]] in the 2nd century and ruled by the [[Banu Lakhm]], hence the name given it. They adopted the religion of the [[Church of the East]], founded in [[Assyria]]/[[Asōristān]], opposed to the Ghassanids Greek Orthodox Christianity, and were clients of the [[Sasanian Empire]].
The Byzantines and Sasanians used the Ghassanids and Lakhmids to fight proxy wars in Arabia against each other.
== History of Arabization ==
[[File:Map of expansion of Caliphate.svg|thumb|Arab conquests 622 AD to 750 AD|292x292px]]
=== Arabization during the early Caliphate ===
The earliest and most significant instance of "Arabization" was the first Muslim conquests of Muhammad and the subsequent [[Rashidun]] and [[Umayyad]] [[Caliphates]]. They built a [[Muslim Empire]] that grew well beyond the Arabian Peninsula, eventually reaching as far as [[Al-Andalus|Spain]] in the West and Central Asia to the East.
=== Southern Arabia ===
{{Further|Southern Arabia}}
South Arabia is a historical region that consists of the southern region of the Arabian Peninsula, mainly centered in what is now the Republic of Yemen, yet it also included Najran, Jizan, and 'Asir, which are presently in Saudi Arabia, and the Dhofar of present-day Oman.
[[Old South Arabian]] was driven to extinction by the Islamic expansion, being replaced by [[Classical Arabic]] which is written with the [[Arabic script]]. The [[South Arabian alphabet]] which was used to write it also fell out of use. A separate branch of south semitic, the [[Modern South Arabian languages]] still survive today as spoken languages in southern of present-day Saudi Arabia, Yemen, and Dhofar in present-day Oman.
Although [[Yemen]] is traditionally held to be the homeland of Arabs, most<ref>Nebes, Norbert, "Epigraphic South Arabian," in Uhlig, Siegbert, ''Encyclopaedia Aethiopica'' (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2005), p. 335</ref><ref>Leonid Kogan and [[Andrey Korotayev]]: Sayhadic Languages (Epigraphic South Arabian) // Semitic Languages. London: Routledge, 1997, pp. 157-183.</ref> of the sedentary Yemeni population did not speak Arabic (but instead [[Old South Arabian languages]]) prior to the spread of Islam.
===Eastern Arabia===
{{Further|Eastern Arabia|Bahrani people|Dilmun civilization}}
The sedentary people of pre-Islamic [[Eastern Arabia]] were mostly [[Aramaic language|Aramaic speakers]] and to some degree [[Persian language|Persian speakers]], while [[Syriac language|Syriac]] functioned as a [[liturgical language]].<ref name="om"/>{{failed verification|date=August 2018}}<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mrmJAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA185|title=The Mediterranean World in Late Antiquity|work=Averil Cameron|year=1993|pages=185|isbn=9781134980819|last1=Cameron|first1=Averil}}</ref>{{failed verification|date=August 2018}} According to [[Robert Bertram Serjeant|Serjeant]], the indigenous [[Bahrani people]] are the [[Arabized]] "descendants of converts from the original population of Christians (Aramaeans), Jews and [[Persian people|ancient Persians (Majus)]] inhabiting the island and cultivated coastal provinces of [[Eastern Arabia]] at the time of the [[Arab conquest]]".<ref name="maj"/> In pre-Islamic times, the population of eastern Arabia consisted of partially Christianized Arabs, [[Aramean]] agriculturalists and, Persian-speaking [[Zoroastrians]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Va6oSxzojzoC&pg=PA98|title=E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913-1936, Volume 5|work= M. Th. Houtsma|page=98|year=1993|isbn=9004097910|last1=Houtsma|first1=M. Th}}</ref><ref name="om">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tsZdAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT253|title=Tradition and Modernity in Arabic Language And Literature|work=J R Smart, J. R. Smart|year=2013|isbn=9781136788123|last1=Smart|first1=J. R.|last2=Smart|first2=J. R.}}</ref>{{failed verification|date=August 2018}}<ref name="maj">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bJLjAKH7-rIC&pg=PR25|title=Dialect, Culture, and Society in Eastern Arabia: Glossary|work=Clive Holes|year=2001|pages=XXIV–XXVI|isbn=9004107630|last1=Holes|first1=Clive}}</ref>
[[Zorastarianism]] was one of the major religions of pre-Islamic eastern Arabia; the first monotheistic religion in the history of eastern Arabia were known as [[Majus|Majoos]] in pre-Islamic times.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dIuuyj9lpXoC&q=majoos+eastern+arabia&pg=PA131|title=Glossary Of Islamic Terms|access-date=11 December 2014|last1=Zanaty|first1=Anwer Mahmoud}}</ref>
[[File:WLA_metmuseum_Sword_and_scabbard_Iran_7th_century.jpg|thumb|Sassanian weaponry, 7th century.]]
===The [[Fertile Crescent]] and [[Syria (region)]]===
After the rise of Islam, the Arab tribes unified under the banner of Islam and conquered modern Jordan, Israel, Palestinian territories, Iraq and Syria. However, even before the emergence of Islam, the Levant was already a home for several pre-Islamic Arabian kingdoms. The [[Nabateans]] kingdom of Petra which was based in Jordan, the [[Ghassanids]] kingdom which was based in the Syrian desert. Some of these kingdoms were under the indirect influence of the [[Eastern Roman Empire|Romans]], [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]], and the [[Persian Empire|Persian]] [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanids]]. The Nabateans transcript developed in Petra was the base for the current Arabic transcript while the Arab heritage is full of poetry recording the wars between the [[Ghassanids]] and [[Lakhmids]] Arabian tribes in Syria. In the 7th century, and after the dominance of Arab Muslims within a few years, the major [[garrison|garrison towns]] developed into the major cities. The local [[Arabic]] and [[Aramaic]] speaking population, which shared a very close Semitic linguistic/genetic ancestry with the [[Qahtanite|Qahtani]] and [[Adnani]] Arabs, was somewhat Arabized. The [[indigenous peoples|indigenous]] [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]] largely resisted Arabization in [[Upper Mesopotamia]], the Assyrians of the north continued to speak [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] influenced [[Neo-Aramaic]] dialects descending from the [[Imperial Aramaic]] of the [[Assyrian Empire]], together with [[Syriac language|Syriac]] which was founded in Assyria in the 5th century BC, and retaining [[Assyrian Church of the East]] and [[Syriac Orthodox Church]] [[Christianity]]. These linguistic and religious traditions still persist to the present day. The [[Gnostic]] [[Mandeans]] also retained their ancient culture, religion and [[Mandaic language|Mandaic]]-[[Aramaic]] language after the Arab Islamic conquest, and these too still survive today.
===Egypt===
{{See also|Muslim conquest of Egypt}}
Since the foundation of the [[Ptolemaic kingdom]] in [[Alexandria]], Egypt had been under the influence of Greek culture. Before [[Alexander the Great]] it had been ruled by the [[Achaemenid Empire]]. Greek influence remained strong after [[Egypt (Roman province)|Egypt]]'s conquest by the [[Roman Empire]] in 30BC. Eventually it was conquered from the Eastern [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] by the Muslim Umayyad Caliphate in the 7th century CE. The [[Coptic language]], which was written using the [[Coptic script|Coptic variant]] of the [[Greek alphabet]], was spoken in Egypt before the Islamic conquest. As a result of Egypt's cultural Arabization, the adopted Arabic language began to serve as a lingua franca. The [[Egyptian Arabic]] dialect has retained a number of Coptic words, and [[Egyptian Arabic#Coptic substratum|the grammar takes some influence from Coptic]], as well. Currently the Ancient Coptic language only survives as a liturgical language of the Coptic Church and is fluently spoken by many Egyptian priests.
===North Africa and Iberia===
Neither North Africa nor the Iberian Peninsula were strangers to Semitic culture: the [[Phoenicians]] and later the [[Carthaginians]] dominated parts of the North African and Iberian shores for more than eight centuries until they were suppressed by the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] and by the following [[Vandal]] and [[Visigoth]]ic invasions, and the [[Berber people|Berber]] incursions. After the [[Arab]] invasion of North Africa, The [[Berber people|Berber]] tribes allied themselves with the [[Umayyad]] Arab Muslim armies in invading the Iberian Peninsula. Later, in 743 AD, the Berbers defeated the Arab Umayyad armies and expelled them for most of West North Africa (al-Maghreb al-Aqsa) during the [[Berber Revolt]], but not the territory of Ifriqiya which stayed Arab (East Algeria, Tunisia, and West-Libya). Centuries later some migrating [[Arab tribes]] settled in some plains while the Berbers remained the dominant group mainly in desert areas including mountains. The Inland North Africa remained exclusively Berber until the 11th century; the [[Iberian Peninsula]], on the other hand, remained Arabized, particularly in the south, until the 16th century.
After finishing the establishment of the Arab city of [[Mahdia|Al Mahdiya]] in Tunisia and spreading the Islamic [[Shiite]] faith, some of the many [[Arab]] [[Fatimids]] left Tunisia and parts of eastern Algeria to the local [[Zirids]] (972–1148).<ref name="stearns">{{cite book |last1 = Stearns|first1 = Peter N.|last2 = Leonard Langer|first2 = William|title = The Encyclopedia of World History: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern, Chronologically Arranged|url = https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaworl00stea|url-access = limited|publisher = [[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt]]|year = 2001|edition = 6|pages = [https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaworl00stea/page/n2476 129]–131|isbn = 0-395-65237-5}}</ref> The invasion of Ifriqiya by the [[Banu Hilal]], a warlike Arab [[Bedouin]] tribe encouraged by the Fatimids of Egypt to seize North Africa, sent the region's urban and economic life into further decline.<ref name="stearns" /> The Arab historian [[Ibn Khaldun]] wrote that the lands ravaged by Banu Hilal invaders had become completely arid desert.<ref name="islamic-dynasties">{{cite book |last = Singh|first = Nagendra Kr|title = International encyclopaedia of islamic dynasties|volume = 4: A Continuing Series|publisher = Anmol Publications PVT. LTD.|year = 2000|pages = 105–112|isbn = 81-261-0403-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.galtoninstitute.org.uk/Newsletters/GINL9603/PopCrises3.htm |title=Populations Crises and Population Cycles, Claire Russell and W.M.S. Russell |publisher=Galtoninstitute.org.uk |access-date=19 January 2013 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130527170154/http://www.galtoninstitute.org.uk/Newsletters/GINL9603/PopCrises3.htm |archivedate=27 May 2013 }}</ref>
===Arabization in Islamic Iberia===
After the [[Umayyad conquest of Hispania]], under the [[Arab]] [[Al-Andalus|Muslim rule]] Iberia (''al-Andalus'') incorporated elements of Arabic language and culture. The [[Mozarab]]s were [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberian]] [[Christians]] who lived under Arab Islamic rule in [[Al-Andalus]]. Their descendants remained unconverted to [[Islam]], but did however adopt elements of Arabic language and [[Arab culture|culture]] and dress. They were mostly [[Roman Catholics]] of the [[Mozarabic Rite|Visigothic or Mozarabic Rite]]. Most of the Mozarabs were descendants of [[Hispania|Hispano]]–[[Visigoths|Gothic]] Christians and were primarily speakers of the [[Mozarabic language]] under Islamic rule. Many were also what the [[Arabist]] Mikel de Epalza calls ''"Neo-Mozarabs"'', that is [[Northern Europe]]ans who had come to the Iberian Peninsula and picked up Arabic, thereby entering the Mozarabic community.
Besides Mozarabs, another group of people in Iberia eventually came to surpass the Mozarabs both in terms of population and Arabization. These were the [[Muladi|Muladi or Muwalladun]], most of whom were descendants of local Hispano-Basques and Visigoths who converted to Islam and adopted Arabic culture, dress, and language. By the 11th century, most of the population of al-Andalus was Muladi, with large minorities of other Muslims, Mozarabs, and [[Sephardic Jews]]. It was the Muladi, together with the Berber, Arab, and other ([[Saqaliba]] and [[Zanj]]) Muslims who became collectively termed in Christian Europe as "[[Moors]]".
The [[Andalusian Arabic]] language was spoken in Iberia during Islamic rule.
===Arabization in Islamic Sicily, Malta, and Crete===
A similar process of Arabization and Islamization occurred in the [[Emirate of Sicily]] (''as-Siqilliyyah''), [[Emirate of Crete]] (''al-Iqritish''), and Malta (''al-Malta''), albeit for a much shorter time span than al-Andalus. However, this resulted in the now defunct [[Sicilian Arabic]] language to develop, from which the modern [[Maltese language]] derives.
===Arabization in Sudan===
[[File:Migration of Arabs into Sudan.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Map showing the late medieval migration of Arabs into Sudan]]
In the 12th century, the Arab [[Ja'alin tribe]] migrated into [[Nubia]] and [[Sudan]] and formerly occupied the country on both banks of the [[Nile]] from [[Khartoum]] to [[Abu Hamad]]. They trace their lineage to [[Abbas ibn 'Abdul Muttalib|Abbas]], uncle of the [[Islam]]ic prophet [[Muhammad]]. They are of Arab origin, but now of mixed blood mostly with [[Sudan (region)|Northern Sudanese]] and [[Nubians]].{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=103}}<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZSDBkKgNgx8C&q=jaalin&pg=PA16|title=Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Volume 17|author=Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, JSTOR (Organization)|year=1888|edition=|editor=|location=|page=16|isbn=|access-date=8 May 2011}}</ref> They were at one time subject to the [[Funj]] kings, but their position was in a measure independent. [[Johann Ludwig Burckhardt]] said that the true Ja'alin from the eastern desert of Sudan are exactly like the [[Bedouin]] of eastern [[Arabia]].
In 1846, many Arab [[Rashaida people|Rashaida]] migrated from [[Hejaz]] in present-day Saudi Arabia into what is now [[Eritrea]] and north-east Sudan after tribal warfare had broken out in their homeland. The Rashaida of Sudan and Eritrea live in close proximity with the [[Beja people]]. Large numbers of [[Bani Rasheed]] are also found on the Arabian Peninsula. They are related to the [[Banu Abs]] tribe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.madote.com/2010/02/eritrea-rashaida-people.html|title=Eritrea: The Rashaida People|publisher=Madote.com|access-date=11 December 2014}}</ref> The Rashaida speak [[Hejazi Arabic]].
In 1888, the [[Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute]] of Great Britain claimed that the Arabic spoken in Sudan was "a pure but archaic Arabic". The pronunciation of certain letters was like [[Syrian Arabic|Syrian]] and [[Khaleeji Arabic]], and not like the [[Egyptian Arabic]] which is very different from both. In Sudanese Arabic, the g letter is being the pronunciation for [[Kaph]] and J letter is being the pronunciation for [[Gimel|Jim]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZSDBkKgNgx8C&q=arab+speaking+tribes+of+the+sudan+archaic+pure&pg=PA16|title=Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Volume 17|author=Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, JSTOR (Organization)|year=1888|location=|page=11|isbn=|access-date=8 May 2011}}</ref>
===Arabization in Sahel===
{{main|Baggara}}
[[Image:Baggara Arabs Belt.svg|thumb|right|300px|Baggara belt]]
In Medieval times, the [[Baggara Arabs]] a grouping of [[Arab]] ethnic groups who speak [[Shuwa Arabic]] (which is one of the regional [[varieties of Arabic]] in Africa) migrated into Africa, mainly between [[Lake Chad]] and southern [[Kordofan]].
Currently, they live in a belt stretching across [[Sudan]], [[Chad]], [[Niger]], [[Nigeria]], [[Cameroon]], [[Central African Republic]] and [[South Sudan]] and numbering over six million people. Like other Arabic speaking tribes in the [[Sahara]] and the [[Sahel]], Baggara tribes have origin ancestry from the [[Juhaynah]] Arab tribes who migrated directly from the [[Arabian peninsula]] or from other parts of [[north Africa]]. {{sfn|deWaal and Flint|2006|pp=9}}
Arabic is an official language of Chad and Sudan as well as a [[national language]] in Niger, [[Mali]], [[Senegal]] and South Sudan. In addition, Arabic dialects are spoken of minorities in [[Nigeria]], [[Cameroon]] and [[Central African Republic]].
==Arabization in modern times==
[[File:Arabic speaking world.svg|thumb|Status of Arabic language map<br>{{legend|SeaGreen|Exclusive official language}}{{legend|#0053ad|One of official languages, majority}}{{legend|#41a2fc|One of official languages, minority}}]]
{{Further|Arab nationalism}}
===Arabization in Algeria===
Arabization is the process of developing and promoting Arabic into a nation's education system, government, and media in order to replace a former language that was enforced into a nation due to colonization.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Daoud|first=Mohamed|date=30 June 1991|title=Arabization in Tunisia: The Tug of War|url=|journal=Issues in Applied Linguistics |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=7–29|via=}}</ref> Algeria had been conquered by France and even made to be part of its [[Metropolitan France|metropolitan core]] for 132 years, a significantly longer timespan compared to Morocco and Tunisia, and it was also more influenced by Europe due to the contiguity with French settlers in Algeria: both Algerian and French nationals used to live in the same towns, resulting in the cohabitation of the two populations.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Sirles|first=Craig A.|date=1999-01-01|title=Politics and Arabization: the evolution of postindependence North Africa|journal=International Journal of the Sociology of Language|volume=137|issue=1|doi=10.1515/ijsl.1999.137.115|s2cid=145218630|issn=0165-2516}}</ref> Based on these facts, one might be induced to believe that Algeria's Arabization process would have been the hardest to achieve, but on the contrary it was the smoothest in the Maghreb region. While trying to build an independent and unified nation-state after the [[Evian Accords]], the Algerian government under [[Ahmed Ben Bella]]’s rule began a policy of “Arabization”. Indeed, due to the lasting and deep colonization, French was the major administrative and academic language in Algeria, even more so than in neighboring countries. The unification and pursuit of a single Algerian identity was to be found in the Arab language and religion, as stated in the 1963 constitution: ''La langue arabe est la langue nationale et officielle de l’État'' ("Arabic is the national and official state language") and '' L'islam est la religion de l'État [...]'' ("Islam is the state religion") and confirmed in 1969, 1976, 1989, 1996 and 2018. According to Abdelhamid Mehri, the decision of Arabic as an official language was the natural choice for Algerians,<ref>{{Cite news|url=|title= Arabic language takes back its place|last=Mehri|first=Abdelhamid|date=January 1972|work=Le Monde Diplomatique|access-date=}}</ref> even though Algeria is a plurilingual nation with a minority, albeit substantial, number of Berbers within the nation, and the [[Algerian Arabic|local variety of Arabic]] used in every-day life was distinct from MSA Arabic. However, the process of Arabization was meant not only to promote Islam, but to fix the gap and decrease any conflicts between the different Algerian ethnic groups and promote equality through monolingualism.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Benrabah|first=Mohamed|date=10 August 2010|title=Language and Politics in Algeria|journal=Nationalism and Ethnic Politics|volume=10|pages=59–78|doi=10.1080/13537110490450773|s2cid=144307427}}</ref> In 1964 the first practical measure was the Arabization of primary education and the introduction of religious education, the state relying on Egyptian teachers – belonging to the [[Muslim Brotherhood]] and therefore particularly religious<ref>Abu-Haidar, Farida. 2000. ‘Arabisation in Algeria’. International Journal of Francophone Studies 3 (3): 151–163.</ref> – due to its lack of literary Arabic-speakers. In 1968, during the [[Houari Boumediene]] regime, Arabization was extended, and a law<ref>ordonnance n° 68-92 du 26 avril rendant obligatoire, pour les fonctionnaires et assimilés, la connaissance de la langue nationale (1968)</ref> tried to enforce the use of Arabic for civil servants, but again, the major role played by French was only diminished. Many laws followed, trying to ban French, Algerian Arabic and [[Berber languages|Berber]] from schools, administrative acts and street signs, but this revived Berber opposition to the state and created a distinction between those educated in Arabic and those in French, the latter still being favored by elites.
The whole policy was ultimately not as effective as anticipated: French had kept its importance<ref>Benrabah, Mohamed. 2007. ‘Language Maintenance and Spread: French in Algeria’. International Journal of Francophone Studies 10 (1–2): 193–215</ref> and Berber opposition kept growing, contributing to the [[1988 October Riots]]. Some Berber groups, like the [[Kabyle people|Kabyles]], felt that their ancestral culture and language were threatened and the Arab identity was given more focus at the expense of their own. After the [[Algerian Civil War]], the government tried to enforce even more the use of Arabic,<ref>http://www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca/afrique/algerie_loi-96.htm</ref> but the relative effect of this policy after 1998 (the limit fixed for complete Arabization) forced the heads of state to make concessions towards [[Berber languages|Berber]], recognizing it in 2002<ref>article 3bis in the 2002 constitutional revision</ref> as another national language that will be promoted. However, because of literary Arabic's symbolic advantage, as well as being a single language as opposed to the fragmented [[Berber languages]], Arabization is still a goal for the state, for example with laws on civil and administrative procedures.<ref>loi du 25 fevrier 2008 Bttp://www.axl.cefan.ulaval.ca/afrique/algerie_loi-diverses.htm#Loi_n°_08-09_du_25_février_2008_portant_code_de_procédure_civile_et_administrative_</ref>
After the Algerian school system completed its transition to Arabic in 1989, James Coffman made a study of the difference between Arabized and non-Arabized students at the Université des Sciences et de la Technologie Houari Boumediene (USTHB) and at the [[Algiers 1 University|University of Algiers]]. Interviewing students he found <blockquote>Arabized students show decidedly greater support for the [[Islamist]] movement and greater mistrust of the West. Arabized students tend to repeat the same ... stories and rumors that abound in the Arabic-language press, particularly Al-Munqidh, the newspaper of the [[Islamic Salvation Front]]. They tell about sightings of the word "Allah" written in the afternoon sky, the infiltration into Algeria of Israeli women spies infected with AIDS, the "disproving" of Christianity on a local religious program,<ref>When [[Ahmed Deedat]], a South African Muslim scholar, debated [[Jimmy Swaggart]] (described as the "leader of Christianity") on the veracity of the Bible. Swaggart was widely believed to have been "trounced", and to have admitted that the Bible had been altered throughout history. "For many millions of Algerians, this constituted proof of the superiority of Islam over Christianity".</ref> and the mass conversion to Islam by millions of Americans. ... When asked if the new, Arabized students differed from the other students, many students and faculty answered an emphatic yes.<ref name="Coffman-12-1995">{{cite journal |last1=Coffman |first1=James |title=Does the Arabic Language Encourage Radical Islam? |journal=Middle East Quarterly |date=December 1995 |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=51–57 |url=https://www.meforum.org/276/does-the-arabic-language-encourage-radical-islam |access-date=31 July 2019}}</ref></blockquote>
=== Arabization in Morocco ===
Following 44 years of colonization by France,<ref name=":0" /> Morocco began promoting the use of Arabic (MSA Arabic) to create a united Moroccan national identity, and increase literacy throughout the nation away from any predominant language within the administration and educational system. Unlike Algeria, Morocco did not encounter with the French as strongly due to the fact that the Moroccan population was scattered throughout the nation and major cities, which resulted in a decrease of French influence compared to the neighboring nations.<ref name=":0" /> According to these facts, one could consider that Morocco would lay an easier path to Arabization and attain it at a faster rate than its neighboring country Algeria, although the results were on the contrary. First and foremost, educational policy was the main focus within the process, debates surfaced between officials who preferred a "modern and westernized" education with enforcement of bilingualism while others fought for a traditional route with a focus of "Arabo-Islamic culture".<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Redouane|first=Rabia|date=May 1998|title=Arabisation in the Moroccan Educational System: Problems and Prospects|journal=Language, Culture and Curriculum|volume=11|issue=2|pages=195–203|doi=10.1080/07908319808666550|issn=0790-8318}}</ref> Once the ''Istiqal Party'' took power, the party focused on placing a language policy siding with the traditional ideas of supporting and focusing on Arabic and Islam.<ref name=":1" /> The ''Istiqal Party'' implemented the policy rapidly and by the second year after gaining independence, the first year of primary education was completely Arabized, and a bilingual policy was placed for the remaining primary education decreasing the hours of French being taught in a staggered manner.<ref name=":1" /> Arabization in schools had been more time-consuming and difficult than expected due to the fact that the first 20 years following independence, politicians (most of which were educated in France or French private school in Morocco) were indecisive as to if Arabization was best for the country and its political and economic ties with European nations.<ref name=":0" /> Regardless, complete Arabization can only be achieved if Morocco becomes completely independent from France in all aspects; politically, economically, and socially. Around 1960, Hajj Omar Abdeljalil the education minister at the time reversed all the effort made to Arabize the public school and reverted to pre-independent policies, favoring French and westernized learning.<ref name=":0" /> Another factor that reflected the support of reversing the Arabization process in Morocco, was the effort made by King Hassan II, who supported the Arabization process but in contrary increased political and economic dependence with France.<ref name=":0" /> Due to the fact that Morocco remained dependent to France and wanted to keep strong ties with the western world, French was supported by the elites more than Arabic for the development of Morocco.<ref name=":0" />
=== Arabization in Tunisia ===
The Arabization process in Tunisia theoretically should have been the easiest within the North African region because it has less than 1% of Berber speaking population, and practically 100% of the nation is a native [[Tunisian Arabic|Tunisian Darija]] speaker.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=Arabization in Tunisia: The Tug of War|last=Daoud, Mohamed|date=1991-06-30|publisher=eScholarship, University of California|oclc=1022151126}}</ref> Although, it was the least successful due to its dependence on European nations and belief in westernizing the nation for future development of the people and the country. Much like Morocco, Tunisian leaders' debate consumed of traditionalists and modernists, traditionalists claiming that Arabic (specifically Classical Arabic) and Islam are the core of Tunisia and its national identity, while modernists believed that westernized development distant from "Pan- Arabist ideas" are crucial for Tunisia's progress.<ref name=":2" /> Modernists had the upper hand, considering elites supported their ideals, and after the first wave of graduates that had passed their high school examinations in Arabic were not able to find jobs nor attend a university because they did not qualify due to French preference in any upper-level university or career other than Arabic and Religious Studies Department.<ref name=":2" /> There were legitimate efforts made to Arabize the nation from the 1970s up until 1982, though the efforts came to an end and the process of reversing all the progress of Arabization began and French implementation in schooling took effect.<ref name=":2" /> The Arabization process was criticized and linked with Islamic extremists, resulting in the process of "Francophonie" or promoting French ideals, values, and language throughout the nation and placing its importance above Arabic.<ref name=":2" /> Although Tunisia gained its independence, nevertheless the elites supported French values above Arabic, the answer to developing an educated and modern nation, all came from westernization. The constitution stated that Arabic was the official language of Tunisia but no where did it claim that Arabic must be utilized within the administrations or every-day life, which resulted in an increase of French usage not only in science and technology courses, but major media channels were French, and government administrations were divided while some were in Arabic others were in French.<ref name=":2" />
===Arabization in Sudan===
[[File:Darfur report - Page 4 Image 2.jpg|thumb|285x285px|Arab [[Janjaweed]] tribes have been accused of killing hundreds of thousands of non-Arab Sudanese in a 2004/05 genocide in Darfur.]] [[Sudan]] is an ethnically-mixed country that is economically and politically dominated by the society of central northern Sudan, where many strongly identify as Arabs and Muslims. The population in southern Sudan consists mostly of Christian and Animist [[Nilotic peoples|Nilotic people]]. The [[Second Sudanese Civil War]] (1983–2005) is typically characterized as a conflict between these two groups of people. In the 2011 [[Southern Sudanese independence referendum, 2011|Southern Sudanese independence referendum]], the latter voted for secession and became independent.
The unrelated [[War in Darfur]] was an uprising in the western [[Darfur]] region of Sudan, caused by oppression of Darfur's non-Arab [[Fur people|Fur]], [[Zaghawa people|Zaghawa]] and [[Masalit people|Masalit]] ethnic groups.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3496731.stm |title=Q&A: Sudan's Darfur conflict |publisher=BBC News |date=8 February 2010 |access-date=24 March 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.alertnet.org/db/crisisprofiles/SD_DAR.htm |title=Reuters AlertNet – Darfur conflict |publisher=Alertnet.org |access-date=24 March 2010}}</ref> The Sudanese government responded to the armed resistance by carrying out a campaign of [[ethnic cleansing]] against Darfur's non-Arabs. This resulted in the deaths of hundreds of thousands of civilians, in mass displacements and coercive migrations, and in the indictment of Sudan's president [[Omar al-Bashir]] for [[genocide]], war crimes, and [[crimes against humanity]] by the [[International Criminal Court]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Prosecutor v. Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir|url=https://www.icc-cpi.int/en_menus/icc/situations%20and%20cases/situations/situation%20icc%200205/related%20cases/icc02050109/Pages/icc02050109.aspx|website=International Criminal Court|access-date=24 April 2016}}</ref> Former US [[Secretary of State]] [[Colin Powell]] described the situation as a genocide or acts of genocide.<ref name="Jones2006">{{cite book|author=Adam Jones|title=Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RnO_Z3y5elgC|date=27 September 2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-25980-9 |page=373}}</ref> The perpetrators were Sudanese military and police and the [[Janjaweed]], a Sudanese [[militia]] group recruited mostly among arabized indigenous Africans and a small number of [[Bedouin]] of the northern [[Rizeigat]].<ref name="guardian2004">{{Cite news|author= de Waal, Alex |url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2004/jul/25/internationalaidanddevelopment.voluntarysector |title=Darfur's Deep Grievances Defy All Hopes for An Easy Solution|work=The Observer|date= 25 July 2004|access-date=13 January 2011 |author-link= Alex de Waal |location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Rights Group Says Sudan's Government Aided Militias|url=http://www.genocidewatch.org/SudanRightsGroupSaysSudanAidesMilitas20July2004.htm|date=20 July 2004|work=Washington Post|access-date=14 January 2007 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20060104021437/http://www.genocidewatch.org/SudanRightsGroupSaysSudanAidesMilitas20July2004.htm|archivedate = 4 January 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/foreign/content/2008/s2259102.htm |title=Darfur – Meet the Janjaweed |access-date=16 July 2008 |publisher=[[American Broadcasting Company]] |date=3 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012035959/http://www.abc.net.au/foreign/content/2008/s2259102.htm |archive-date=12 October 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="autogenerated1">[[Uppsala Conflict Data Program]] [http://www.ucdp.uu.se/gpdatabase/gpcountry.php?id=145®ionSelect=1-Northern_Africa# Conflict Encyclopedia, Sudan, one-sided conflict, Janjaweed – civilians] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160322121309/http://www.ucdp.uu.se/gpdatabase/gpcountry.php?id=145®ionSelect=1-Northern_Africa |date=22 March 2016 }}</ref>
===Arabization in Mauritania===
[[Mauritania]] is an ethnically-mixed country that is economically and politically dominated by those who identify as Arabs and/or Arabic-speaking [[Berbers]]. About 30% of the population is considered "[[Black African]]", and the other 40% are Arabized Blacks, both groups suffer high levels of discrimination.<ref name="npr.org">[https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=87940096] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100502165303/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=87940096|date=2 May 2010}}</ref> Recent Black Mauritanian protesters have complained of "comprehensive Arabization" of the country.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.afrik-news.com/article17279.html|title=Mauritania: Marginalised Black populations fight against Arabisation - Afrik-news.com : Africa news, Maghreb news - The African daily newspaper|author=Alicia Koch, Patrick K. Johnsson|date=8 April 2010|publisher=Afrik-news.com|access-date=11 December 2014}}</ref>
===Arabization in Iraq===
{{main|Ba'athist Arabization campaigns in North Iraq|Al-Anfal Campaign}}
[[Saddam Hussein]]'s [[Ba'ath Party]] had aggressive Arabization policies involving driving out many pre-Arab and non-Arab races – mainly [[Kurds]], [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]], [[Yezidis]], [[Shabaks]], [[Armenians]], [[Turcomans]], [[Kawliya]], [[Circassians]] and [[Mandeans]] – replacing them with Arab families. [[Kirkuk#1970 Autonomy Agreement|This policy]] drove out 500,000 people in the years 1991–2003. The Baathists also pressured many of these ethnic groups to identify as Arabs, and restrictions were imposed upon their languages, cultural expression and right to self-identification. The [[Anfal campaign]] destroyed many Kurdish, Assyrian and other ethnic minority villages and enclaves, and their inhabitants were often forcibly relocated to large cities in the hope that they would be Arabized.
===Arabization in Syria===
{{See also|Human rights in Rojava}}
Since the independence of Syria in 1946, the ethnically diverse [[Rojava]] region in northern Syria suffered grave human rights violations, because all governments pursued a most brutal policy of Arabization.<ref name="HRW-1996">{{cite web|title=SYRIA: The Silenced Kurds; Vol. 8, No. 4(E)|url=https://www.hrw.org/reports/1996/Syria.htm|website=Human Rights Watch|date=1996}}</ref> While all non-Arab ethnic groups within Syria, such as [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]], [[Armenians]], [[Turcomans]] and [[Mhallami]] have faced pressure from [[Arab Nationalism|Arab Nationalist]] policies to identify as ''Arabs'', the most archaic of it was directed against the [[Kurds]]. In his report for the 12th session of the UN [[Human Rights Council]] titled ''Persecution and Discrimination against Kurdish Citizens in Syria'', the [[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights|United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights]] held:<ref name="OHCHR-2009">{{cite web|title=Persecution and Discrimination against Kurdish Citizens in Syria, Report for the 12th session of the UN Human Rights Council|url=http://lib.ohchr.org/HRBodies/UPR/Documents/session12/SY/KIS-KurdsinSyria-eng.pdf|website=Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights|date=2009}}</ref> "Successive Syrian governments continued to adopt a policy of ethnic discrimination and national persecution against Kurds, completely depriving them of their national, democratic and human rights — an integral part of human existence. The government imposed ethnically-based programs, regulations and exclusionary measures on various aspects of Kurds’ lives — political, economic, social and cultural."
The [[Kurdish language]] was not officially recognized, it had no place in public schools.<ref name="HRW-1996" /><ref name="OHCHR-2009" /><ref name=Tejel>{{cite book|first=Jordi |last=Tejel |url=http://www.kurdipedia.org/books/74488.pdf |title=Syria's kurds history, politics and society |year=2009 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=978-0-203-89211-4 |pages=X |edition=1. publ. |author2=Welle, Jane |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304001038/http://www.kurdipedia.org/books/74488.pdf |archivedate=4 March 2016 }}</ref> A decree from 1989 prohibited the use of Kurdish at the workplace as well as in marriages and other celebrations. In September 1992 another government decree that children be registered with Kurdish names.<ref>{{Cite book|url=|title=Out of Nowhere: The Kurds of Syria in Peace and War|last=Gunter|first=Michael M.|date=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9781849044356|location=|pages=21|language=en}}</ref> Also businesses could not be given Kurdish names.<ref name="HRW-1996" /><ref name="OHCHR-2009" /> Books, music, videos and other material could not be published in Kurdish language.<ref name="HRW-1996" /><ref name=Tejel /> Expressions of Kurdish identity like songs and folk dances were outlawed<ref name="OHCHR-2009" /><ref name=Tejel /> and frequently prosecuted under a purpose-built criminal law against "weakening national sentiment".<ref name="HRW-2010">{{cite web|title=HRW World Report 2010|url=https://www.hrw.org/world-report-2010|website=Human Rights Watch|date=2010}}</ref> Celebrating the [[Nowruz]] holiday was often constrained.<ref name="HRW-1996" /><ref name=Tejel />
In 1973 the Syrian authorities confiscated 750 square kilometers of fertile agricultural land in [[Al-Hasakah Governorate]], which were owned and cultivated by tens of thousands of Kurdish citizens, and gave it to Arab families brought in from other provinces.<ref name="OHCHR-2009" /><ref name="CSmonitor-2005">{{cite web|title=A murder stirs Kurds in Syria|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0616/p01s03-wome.html|website=The Christian Science Monitor}}</ref> In 2007 in another such scheme in Al-Hasakah governate, 6,000 square kilometers around [[Al-Malikiyah]] were granted to Arab families, while tens of thousands of Kurdish inhabitants of the villages concerned were evicted.<ref name="OHCHR-2009" /> These and other expropriations of ethnic Kurdish citizens followed a deliberate masterplan, called "Arab Belt initiative", attempting to depopulate the resource-rich Jazeera of its ethnic Kurdish inhabitants and settle ethnic Arabs there.<ref name="HRW-1996" />
After the Turkish-led forces had [[Operation Olive Branch|captured Afrin District]] in early 2018, they began to implement a resettlement policy by moving [[Turkish-backed Free Syrian Army]] fighters and Sunni Arab refugees from southern Syria into the empty homes that belonged to displaced locals.<ref name="conversion">{{cite web |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/syria-yazidis-isis-islam-conversion-afrin-persecution-kurdish-a8310696.html |title=Yazidis who suffered under Isis face forced conversion to Islam amid fresh persecution in Afrin |author=Patrick Cockburn |work=[[The Independent]] |date=18 April 2018 |access-date=23 August 2018 }}</ref> The previous owners, most of them Kurds or [[Yazidis]], were often prevented from returning to Afrin.<ref name="conversion"/> Refugees from Eastern [[Ghouta]], [[Damascus]], said that they were part of "an organised demographic change" which was supposed to replace the Kurdish population of Afrin with an Arab majority.<ref name="conversion"/>
===Arabization in Islamic State of Iraq and Levant campaign===
{{See also|Human rights in Rojava|Destruction of cultural heritage by ISIL}}
While formally committed to [[Islamism]] and [[polyethnicity]], the [[Islamic State of Iraq and Levant]] (ISIL) has frequently targeted non-Arab groups such as such as [[Kurdish people|Kurds]], [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]], [[Armenian people|Armenians]], [[Turcomans]], [[Shabak people|Shabaks]] and [[Yezidis]].<ref name=OHCHR-2014>{{cite web|title=Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic: Twenty-seventh session|url=http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/CoISyria/HRC_CRP_ISIS_14Nov2014.doc|website=UN Human Rights Council}}</ref><ref name="OHCHR-27">{{cite web|url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/RegularSessions/Session27/Documents/A-HRC-27-CRP1.pdf|title=Selected testimonies from victims of the Syrian conflict: Twenty-seventh session|website=UN Human Rights Council}}</ref> It has often been claimed that these (ISIL) campaigns were a part of an organized Arabization plan.<ref name=OHCHR-2014 /><ref name=OHCHR-27 /> A Kurdish official in Iraqi Kurdistan claimed that in particular the [[Northern Iraq offensive (August 2014)|ISIL campaign]] in Sinjar was a textbook case of Arabization.<ref name="rudaw29122014">[http://rudaw.net/mobile/english/interview/29122014]</ref>
It has been suggested in academia that modern [[Islamism]] in general and the [[Islamic State of Iraq and Levant]] (ISIL) in particular would be motivated and driven by a desire to reinforce Arab cultural dominion over the religion of [[Islam]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Unviability of Islamic Caliphate: Ethnic Barriers - Part 1|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/liaquat-ali-khan/unviability-of-islamic-caliphate_b_8922080.html|date=7 January 2016|access-date=21 June 2016|publisher=Huffington Post}}</ref>
==Reversing Arabization==
{{Original research section|date=November 2019}}
[[File:Flag of Syrian Democratic Forces.svg|thumb|The multilingual flag of [[Syrian Democratic Forces]] expresses the [[Polyethnicity|polyethnic]] agenda of the faction in the [[Syrian Civil War]] as opposed to Arabization policies.]]
===Historic reversions===
====Invasion of Malta (1091)====
{{main|Norman invasion of Malta}}
The invaders besieged Medina (modern Mdina), the main settlement on the island, but the inhabitants managed to negotiate peace terms. The Muslims freed Christian captives, swore an oath of loyalty to Roger and paid him an annual tribute. Roger's army then sacked Gozo and returned to Sicily with the freed captives.
The attack did not bring about any major political change, but it paved the way for the re-Christianization of Malta, which began in 1127. Over the centuries, the invasion of 1091 was romanticized as the liberation of Christian Malta from oppressive Muslim rule, and a number of traditions and legends arose from it, such as the unlikely claim that Count Roger gave his colours red and white to the Maltese as their national colours.
====Reconquista (1212-1492)====
The [[Reconquista]] in the Iberian Peninsula is the most notable example for a historic reversion of Arabization. The process of Arabization and Islamization was reversed as the mostly Christian kingdoms in the north of the peninsula conquered [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]] in 1212 and [[Province of Córdoba (Spain)|Cordoba]] in 1236.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://quatr.us/medieval/reconquista-medieval-spain.htm|title=The Reconquista - Medieval Spain|last=Carr|first=Karen|date=2017-08-03|website=Quatr.us Study Guides|language=en-US|access-date=2018-12-31}}</ref> As [[Granada]] was conquered in January 1492 also the last remaining Emirate on the Peninsula was conquered.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.spanishwars.net/15th-century-conquest-of-granada.html|title=The Conquest of Granada|website=www.spanishwars.net|access-date=2018-12-31}}</ref> The re-conquered territories later were [[Romanization (cultural)|Romanized]] and [[Christianization|Christianized]], although the culture, languages and religious traditions imposed differed from those of the previous Visigothic kingdom.
===Reversions in modern times===
In modern times, there have been various political developments to reverse the process of Arabization. Notable among these are:
* The 1929 introduction of the [[Latin Alphabet]] instead of the [[Arabic Alphabet|Arabic Abjad]] in [[Turkey]] as part of the [[Kemalism|Kemalist]] reforms.
* The 1992 establishment of Kurdish-dominated polity in the [[Mesopotamia]] as [[Iraqi Kurdistan]].
* The 2012 establishment of multi-ethnic [[Democratic Federation of Northern Syria]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2015/11/syria-kurdistan-self-governance-teach-kurdish-language.html|title=After 52-year ban, Syrian Kurds now taught Kurdish in schools|publisher=Al-Monitor|date=6 November 2015|access-date=29 October 2016}}</ref>
* [[Berberism]], a [[Berber people|Berber]] political-cultural movement of ethnic, geographic, or cultural [[nationalism]] present in [[Algeria]], [[Morocco]] and broader North Africa including [[Mali]]. The Berberist movement is in opposition to [[Islamist]]-driven cultural Arabization and the [[pan-Arabist]] political ideology and also associated with [[secularism]].
*Arabization of Malays was criticized by Sultan [[Ibrahim Ismail of Johor]].<ref>{{cite news |last= |first= |date=24 March 2016 |title=Stop aping Arabs, Johor Sultan tells Malays |url=http://www.themalaymailonline.com/malaysia/article/stop-aping-arabs-johor-sultan-tells-malays |newspaper=Malay Mail Online |location=KUALA LUMPUR |access-date= }}</ref> He urged the retention of Malay culture instead of introducing Arab culture.<ref>{{cite news |last= |first= |date=24 March 2016<!--, 10:12 am SGT--> |title=Stop trying to be like Arabs, Johor ruler tells Malays |url=http://www.straitstimes.com/asia/se-asia/stop-trying-to-be-like-arabs-johor-ruler-tells-malays |newspaper=The Straits Times |location=JOHOR BARU |access-date= }}</ref> He called on people to not mind unveiled women, mixed sex handshaking and to using Arabic words in place of Malay words.<ref>{{cite news |last= |first= |date=28 March 2016 |title=Johor Sultan Says Be Malay Not Arab |url=http://www.asiasentinel.com/society/malaysia-sultan-to-subjects-be-malay-not-arab/ |newspaper=Asia Sentinel |location= |access-date= }}</ref> He suggested Saudi Arabia as a destination for those who wanted Arab culture.<ref>{{cite news |last=Zainuddin |first=Abdul Mursyid |date=24 March 2016 |title=Berhenti Cuba Jadi 'Seperti Arab' – Sultan Johor |url=http://www.suara.tv/2016/03/24/berhenti-cuba-jadi-seperti-arab-sultan-johor/ |newspaper=Suara TV |location=JOHOR BAHRU |access-date= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170926041425/http://www.suara.tv/2016/03/24/berhenti-cuba-jadi-seperti-arab-sultan-johor/ |archive-date=26 September 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last= |first= |date=24 March 2016 |title=Sultan Johor Ajak Malaysia Jaga Tradisi Melayu, Bukan Arab |url=https://m.tempo.co/read/news/2016/03/24/118756567/sultan-johor-ajak-malaysia-jaga-tradisi-melayu-bukan-arab |newspaper=TEMPO.CO |location=TEMPO.CO , Kuala Lumpu |access-date= }}</ref> He said that he was going to adhere to Malay culture himself.<ref>{{cite news |last=wong |first=chun wai |date=24 March 2016 |title= Stop trying to be like Arabs, Ruler advises Malays |url=http://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2016/03/24/stop-trying-to-be-like-arabs-ruler-advises-malays/ |newspaper=The Star Online |location=JOHOR BARU |access-date= }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last= |first= |date=24 March 2016 |title=Stop aping Arabs, Johor Sultan tells Malays |url=http://www.todayonline.com/world/asia/stop-aping-arabs-johor-sultan-tells-malays |newspaper=TODAYonline |location=KUALA LUMPUR |access-date= }}</ref> Abdul Aziz Bari said that Islam and Arab culture are intertwined and criticized the Johor Sultan for what he said.<ref>{{cite news |last= |first= |date=24 March 2016 |title=Arab culture integral to Islam, Johor sultan advised|url=http://www.malaysiakini.com/news/335069 |newspaper=malaysiakini |location= |access-date= }}</ref> Datuk Haris Kasim also criticized the Sultan for his remarks, he leads the Selangor Islamic Religious Department.<ref>{{cite news |last=Irsyad |first=Arief |date= 7 April 2016 |title=Is "Arabisation" A Threat To The Malay Identity As Claimed By The Johor Sultan? Here's What Some Malays Have To Say |url=http://malaysiandigest.com/features/604507-is-arabisation-a-threat-to-the-malay-identity-as-claimed-by-the-johor-sultan-here-s-what-some-malays-have-to-say.html |newspaper=Malaysian Digest |location= |access-date= }}</ref>
== See also ==
{{cols|colwidth=21em}}
* [[Cultural appropriation]]
* [[Settler colonialism]]
* [[Arab language]]
* [[Arabic script]]
* [[Arab nationalism]]
* [[Pan-Arabism]]
* [[Islamization]]
* [[Cultural assimilation]]
* [[Human rights in Rojava]]
* [[Arabization and Islamicization in post-conquest Iran]]
* [[Arabization of the Jordanian Army command]]
{{colend}}
==Notes==
{{Reflist|2}}
==References==
;Attribution
*{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Jā'alin|volume=15|page=103}}
*{{PD-old-text|title=Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Volume 17|year=1888|author=Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, JSTOR (Organization)}}
*{{PD-old-text|title=Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Volume 17|year=1888|author=Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, JSTOR (Organization)}}
==External links==
* [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC379148/ Genetic Evidence for the Expansion of Arabian Tribes into the Southern Levant and North Africa]
{{Cultural assimilation|sp=ize}}
[[Category:Arabization| ]]
[[Category:Arab]]
[[Category:Arab history]]
[[Category:Cultural assimilation]]
[[Category:Arab culture]]
[[Category:Arabic languages]]
| 