|
[https://am.wikimedia.org/wiki/%D5%8E%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B0%D5%BD%D5%AF%D5%B8%D5%B2_%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B1%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AA%D5%B8%D5%B2%D5%B8%D5%BE/%D4%B1%D6%80%D5%B1%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%A3%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80/22.05.2020 Այստեղ ]
== Բարձր միջին դարեր (1242-1396) ==
=== Կարպատական շրջան ===
{{main|Golden Horde}}
Հունգարական թագավորությունից դուրս գալուց հետո մոնղոլական ուժերը After the withdrawal from the Kingdom of Hungary, the Mongol forces halted at [[Sarai (city)|Sarai]] (now [[Russia]]) on the [[Volga River]] where their leader, [[Batu Khan]] set up his own capital.<ref>Sedlar 1994, p. 214.</ref> Henceforth, the steppes between the rivers [[Dnieper River|Dnieper]] and [[Danube]] were under the influence of the Mongols of the Volga, known as the Golden Horde.{{sfn|Curta|2006|p=413}}<ref>Sedlar 1994, p. 215.</ref><ref>Vásáry 2005, p. 69.</ref> From the 1260s, a relative of Batu, [[Nogai Khan]] settled at [[Isaccea]] on the Lower Danube and became the absolute master of the neighboring regions.{{sfn|Curta|2006|p=414}}<ref>Vásáry 2005, pp. 71–72.</ref> He made himself independent of the Golden Horde around 1280, but was killed in a battle in 1299.{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=227}}<ref>Vásáry 2005, pp. 91–92., 161.</ref>
By the middle of the 14th century, the westernmost Mongol territories had become subject to frequent Polish and Hungarian military offensives.{{sfn|Sălăgean|2005|pp=199-200}} Grand Prince [[Algirdas|Olgierd of Lithuania]] penetrated farther into the territories controlled by the Golden Horde than any European army had hitherto done.<ref name='Sedlar 380'>Sedlar 1994, p. 380.</ref> He won [[Battle of Blue Waters|a major victory over the united Mongol troops]] on the Dnieper near the Black Sea in 1363.<ref name='Sedlar 380'/><ref name='Vásáry 164'>Vásáry 2005, p. 164.</ref>
=== Intra-Carpathian regions ===
[[File:Turla Biserica Sfântul Nicolae din Densuș.jpg|thumb|right|190px|alt=The tower of a church and snowy mountains in the distance |[[Densuş Church|Romanian Orthodox church at Densuş]]]]
[[File:Oligarchs in the Kingdom of Hungary.png|thumb|right|190px|alt=A map depicting the provinces of a dozen oligarchs|The domains of [[Ladislaus Kán]] and other [[Oligarch (Kingdom of Hungary)|oligarchs]] in the [[Kingdom of Hungary]] in the early 14th century]]
[[File:Fortificatie Deva.JPG|thumb|right|190px|alt=Fortress at Deva|[[Ladislaus Kán]]'s fortress at [[Deva, Romania|Deva]]]]
[[Image:AşezareaSaşilorTransilvania.PNG|thumb|right|190px|alt=Map of Transylvanian Saxon seats|[[Transylvanian Saxons|Saxon]] seats in Transylvania]]
Having been raided twice by the Mongols within a single year, Transylvania felt the consequences of the invasion of 1241–1242 for more than two decades.{{sfn|Sălăgean|2005|p=175}}{{sfn|Curta|2006|p=413}} The administrative centers of the province, such as [[Alba Iulia]] and [[Cetatea de Baltă]], had been destroyed.{{sfn|Sălăgean|2005|p=175}} Due to the severe depopulation, a process of organized colonization commenced that lasted for several decades.{{sfn|Kristó|2003|p=159}} For example, a new wave of colonization resulted in the establishment of the Saxon seats of [[Sighişoara]] and [[Mediaș]]; and the lord of [[Ilia, Hunedoara|Ilia]] received, in 1292, royal permission to settle Romanians in the lands he owned.{{sfn|Sălăgean|2005|p=164}}{{sfn|Kristó|2003|pp=76, 159}}{{sfn|Makkai|1994|p=214}}
Since only castles built of stone and walled towns had been able to resist Mongol attacks, following the withdrawal of the Mongols the kings encouraged both the landowners and the townspeople to build stone fortifications.<ref>Sedlar 1994, p. 118.</ref> New stone fortresses were built, for example, at [[Codlea]], [[Rimetea]], and [[Unguraş, Cluj|Unguraş]].{{sfn|Sălăgean|2005|p=206}}{{sfn|Kristó|2003|pp=160-161}} The process of urbanization was characterized by the predominance of the Saxon towns: out of the eight towns in Transylvania, only Alba Iulia and [[Dej]] were situated in the counties.{{sfn|Kristó|2003|pp=187-188}} A charter referring to inns, bakeries, and bathhouses in Rodna proves the city-like way of life of its inhabitants.{{sfn|Kristó|2003|p=178}} Salt was still the most important item of trade in this period, but trading with oxen, maidservants, and wine is also documented in royal charters.{{sfn|Kristó|2003|pp=160, 176}}
In 1257, [[Béla IV of Hungary]] (1235–1270) appointed his eldest son, the future [[Stephen V of Hungary|Stephen V]] (1270–1272) to govern the kingdom's territories to the east of the Danube.{{sfn|Kristó|2003|p=162}} Here the younger king ceded a significant part of his royal domains to [[Nobility in the Kingdom of Hungary|noblemen]].{{sfn|Sălăgean|2005|p=177}} The first years of the reign of [[Ladislaus IV of Hungary]] (1272–1290), were characterized by civil wars throughout the entire kingdom.<ref>Sedlar 1994, p. 287.</ref>{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=108}} In Transylvania, the Saxons engaged in a local conflict with the bishop, took Alba Iulia and set fire to the cathedral.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=108}} The series of wars continued in 1285 with a second Mongol invasion.{{sfn|Sălăgean|2005|p=180}} During its initial stage, the Székelys, the Romanians and the Saxons successfully blocked the Mongols' access and later organized a series of ambushes provoking panic among the retreating invaders.{{sfn|Sălăgean|2005|p=180}}
By that time, the Romanians' military role had expanded from their original task of defending the kingdom's frontiers.{{sfn|Sălăgean|2005|p=187}} They participated in several military campaigns, for example against [[Bohemia]] in 1260 and against [[Habsburg Monarchy|Austria]] in 1291.{{sfn|Sălăgean|2005|p=187}}{{sfn|Kristó|2003|p=143}} Their economic role became also recognized, since their pastoral activities connected to cloth production of the Saxon settlements.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=119}} To the monarchs, they paid a special tax in sheep, called the "fiftieth".{{sfn|Sălăgean|2005|p=187}} [[Andrew III of Hungary]] (1290–1301) even ordered, in 1293, that all the Romanians who had been settled without royal permission on noble domains be returned to the royal estate of Armeni.{{sfn|Kristó|2003|p=143}}{{sfn|Makkai|1994|p=198}}
In the last decades of the 13th century, ''congregatio generalis'' ("general assembly") convoked by the monarchs or their representatives became an important organ of [[court system]].{{sfn|Kristó|2003|p=220}} For instance, the general assembly convoked in 1279 by Ladislaus IV for seven counties – among them [[Bihar County|Bihor]], Crasna, [[Szatmár County|Sătmar]], and Zărand in the territory what is now Romania – ended with sentencing a despotic person to death.{{sfn|Kristó|2003|pp=220-221}} The first charter referring to a general assembly of the Transylvanian counties was recorded in 1288.{{sfn|Sălăgean|2005|p=181}}{{sfn|Pop|1999|p=53}} A general assembly of the Transylvanian nobles, Saxons, Székelys and Romanians was convoked personally by the monarch in 1291.{{sfn|Sălăgean|2005|p=183}}
When Andrew III died in 1301, the entire kingdom was in the hands of a [[Oligarch (Kingdom of Hungary)|dozen powerful noblemen]].{{sfn|Makkai|1994|p=204}} Among them, [[Roland Borsa]] ruled Crişana, [[Theodore Vejtehi]] gained the upper hand in the Banat, and [[Ladislaus Kán]] governed Transylvania.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=126}}<ref name='Vásáry 149'>Vásáry 2005, p. 149.</ref> The latter's authority was also recognized by the Saxons and the Székelys.{{sfn|Sălăgean|2005|pp=185-186}} He even assumed royal prerogatives, such as taking over lands lacking rightful owners.{{sfn|Sălăgean|2005|pp=185-187}}{{sfn|Pop|1999|p=50}} After 1310, he acknowledged [[Charles I of Hungary]] (1301–1342) as his sovereign, but in fact continued to rule independently.{{sfn|Makkai|1994|p=204}}{{sfn|Kristó|2003|p=231}} The king who transferred his residence to [[Timișoara]] in 1315 could only strengthen his authority after a long series of confrontations.{{sfn|Kristó|2003|p=231}}{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=131}}{{sfn|Sălăgean|2005|p=188}} For instance, [[Ciceu-Mihăieşti|Ciceu]], the last stronghold of Ladislaus Kán's sons surrendered in 1321.<ref name='Vásáry 149'/>{{sfn|Makkai|1994|p=205}}
After the king's victory, one of his loyal adherents, [[Szécsényi|Thomas Szécsényi]] was appointed ''voivode'' who suppressed a Saxon revolt in 1324.{{sfn|Makkai|1994|p=205}}{{sfn|Sălăgean|2005|p=189}}{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=144}} At that time, the autonomous Saxon province was divided into seats, each administered by a judge appointed by the king.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mek.niif.hu/03400/03407/html/80.html|publisher=mek.niif.hu (Magyar Elektronikus Könyvtár)|title=Saxon Towns and Political Unity|work=History of Transylvania, Volume I: From the Beginnings to 1606 – Transylvania in the Medieval Hungarian Kingdom|year=2001|author=László Makkai|accessdate=2010-11-01}}</ref> In appreciation of the Transylvanian noblemen's services in the crushing of the revolt, Charles I exempted them from the taxes they had so far paid to the ''voivode''s.{{sfn|Makkai|1994|p=205}}{{sfn|Kristó|2003|p=235}}
In this period, one of the major incentives for the growth of Transylvanian towns was the trade with Wallachia and Moldavia.{{sfn|Makkai|1994|p=233}} For instance, Braşov was granted a [[staple right]] in 1369 with respect to the trade in cloth from Poland or Germany.<ref name='Sedlar 356'>Sedlar 1994, p. 356.</ref> Thereafter, foreign merchants had to sell their most sought-after merchandise, [[broadcloth]] to the tradesmen of Braşov who resold it in Wallachia in exchange for animals, cotton, wax and honey.{{sfn|Makkai|1994|p=233}}<ref name='Sedlar 356'/>
In the 14th century, the name "[[Romanian district|district]]" was generalized for the forms of territorial organizations of the Romanians, but only few of them, for instance their district in [[Bereg County]] (now in Hungary and Ukraine), achieved official recognition.{{sfn|Makkai|1994|p=198}}{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=234}} Maramureş, where Romanians were first mentioned in 1326, was the only district that transformed, around 1380, into a county.{{sfn|Pop|1999|p=55}}{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=270}}{{sfn|Makkai|1994|p=219}} [[Louis I of Hungary]] (1342–1382) issued [[Decree of Turda|a royal decree in 1366]] which prescribed firm judicial measures against "the malefactors of any nation, especially Romanians".{{sfn|Pop|2005|pp=219-220., 258}}
Louis I's decree also regulated the legal status of the ''[[Knez (Vlach leader)|knezes]]'', the Romanians' local leaders, by establishing a distinction between ''knezes'' "brought to" their lands by royal writ whose testimony in court weighed like that of nobles ("noble ''knezes''"), and others whose evidence counted for less ("commoner ''knezes''").{{sfn|Makkai|1994|p=215}}<ref>Sedlar 1994, p. 64.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stm.unipi.it/Clioh/tabs/libri/9/08-Pop_111-124.pdf|publisher=www.stm.unipi.it (Università di Pisa, Dipartimento di Storia)|title=Nations and Denominations in Transylvania (13th-16th Century)|work=Tolerance and Intolerance in Historical Perspective|year=2003|author=Pop, Ioan-Aurel|accessdate=2011-01-19|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718141520/http://www.stm.unipi.it/Clioh/tabs/libri/9/08-Pop_111-124.pdf|archivedate=2011-07-18}}</ref> This distinction, however, did not mean real nobility and grant them exemption from royal taxes, even for the noble ''knezes''.{{sfn|Makkai|1994|p=215}} Their status corresponded to that of the Hungarian "[[conditional noble]]s" whose nobility depended on the specified military services they were to render.{{sfn|Makkai|1994|p=215}}{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=247}}
According to a royal decree of 1428, Louis I had also ordered that only Catholics be granted land in the [[Sebeş River (Timiş)|Sebeş]] district of [[Temes County|Timiş county]].{{sfn|Makkai|1994|p=219}} As a result of official pressure, many Romanian noblemen converted to Catholicism.<ref name="Treptow, Bolovan 1997, p. 77">Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 77.</ref> For example, the members of the powerful Drágffy family turned Catholic in the 15th century.{{sfn|Makkai|1994|pp=218-220}}{{sfn|Pop|2005|pp=239-240}} The Ottomans raided Transylvania for the first time in 1394.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=203}} [[Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor|Sigismund I of Hungary]] (1387–1437) organized a [[Crusade of Nicopolis|crusade against them]], but the [[battle of Nicopolis]] (now [[Nikopol, Bulgaria]]) ended in disaster for the Christian forces in 1396.{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=424}}<ref name="Treptow, Popa 1996, p. 148">Treptow, Popa 1996, p. 148.</ref>
=== Establishment of Wallachia ===
{{main|Foundation of Wallachia}}
According to a charter issued by Béla IV of Hungary for the [[Knights Hospitallers]] in 1247, at that time at least four polities existed in the area to the south of the Carpathians.{{sfn|Curta|2006|p=407}}{{sfn|Sălăgean|2005|p=190}} Two of them, the ''cnezat''s of [[John (knez)|John]] and [[Farcaş]] were granted to the knights, but the lands ruled by [[Litovoi]] and [[Seneslau]] were left "to the ''Olati''" ("Romanians") "just as they have owned it".{{sfn|Sălăgean|2005|p=190}}{{sfn|Georgescu|1991|p=16}}<ref>Vásáry 2005, pp. 146–147.</ref> In the 1270s, Litovoi extended his territory and stopped paying tribute to the king, but his army was defeated by the royal forces, and he was killed in the battle.<ref name="Treptow, Bolovan 1997, p. 65">Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 65.</ref>{{sfn|Sălăgean|2005|p=191}}
[[Image:Viennese Illuminated Chronicle Posada.jpg|right|thumb|200px|alt=Battle of Posada|The [[Battle of Posada]] in the [[Chronicon Pictum|Vienna Illustrated Chronicle]]]]
Romanian historical tradition associates the foundation of Wallachia with the [[Foundation of Wallachia#'Dismounting' by Radu Negru|"dismounting of Radu Negru"]] who crossed the Carpathians from Transylvania accompanied by "Romanians, [[papist]]s, Saxons, and all kind of men" around 1290.<ref name="Treptow, Bolovan 1997, p. 65"/>{{sfn|Sălăgean|2005|p=191}}{{sfn|Pop|1999|p=45}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bmb-on-line.ro/biblioteca/135/149/normala/P5.html|publisher=www.bmb-on-line.ro|title=Istoria Ţării Rumîneşti de cînd au descălecat pravoslavnicii creştini (History of Wallachia from the time when the Orthodox Christians dismounted there)|work=Letopiseţul Cantacuzinesc|author=Stoica Ludescu (?)|accessdate=2010-11-01|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727025121/http://www.bmb-on-line.ro/biblioteca/135/149/normala/P5.html|archivedate=2011-07-27}}</ref> The first sovereign of Wallachia recorded in contemporary sources was Basarab I who obtained international recognition for the independence of the principality by his victory over Charles I of Hungary in the battle of Posada on November 12, 1330.<ref name="Treptow, Bolovan 1997, p. 65"/><ref>Klepper 2002, p. 52.</ref> The princes of Wallachia were chosen from among his descendants – either legitimate, or not – by an assembly of the ''boyars'' until the 16th century.<ref name='Sedlar 32'>Sedlar 1994, p. 32.</ref><ref>Treptow, Popa 1996, p. 39.</ref>
The ''boyars'', members of the landed nobility, formed the most important social group in the principality.<ref>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 76.</ref> The vast majority of the population was formed by peasants who were called several names, such as ''vecini'' ("neighbors") or ''rumâni'' ("Romanians"), in medieval documents.<ref name="Treptow, Bolovan 1997, p. 77"/>{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=222}} In this period, animals, especially sheep, remained the main item of export, but from the [[Wallachian Plain]] great quantities of grain were transported to the Mediterranean area.{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=214}} The basis of the peasants' diet was formed by [[millet]] eaten as [[porridge]], while the ''boyars'' also used [[wheat]].{{sfn|Georgescu|1991|p=22}}
The Orthodox Metropolitan See of Wallachia was recognized by the [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople]] in 1359.{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=236}} Wallachia issued its own currency under [[Vladislav I of Wallachia|Vladislav I]] (1364–''c.'' 1377).{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=249}} The earliest written information about [[Romani people|Gypsies]] in modern Romania, a deed issued by [[Dan I of Wallachia]] (''c.'' 1383–1386) refers to Vladislav I's former donation of Gypsies to the Vodiţa monastery.{{sfn|Achim|2004|p=13}} Later on, all the important monasteries and ''boyars'' owned [[Slavery in Romania|Gipsy slaves]].{{sfn|Achim|2004|p=14}}<ref>Treptow, Popa 1996, p. 104.</ref>
The Ottomans entered for the first time into Wallachia in 1395.<ref name='Treptow 1997 99'>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 99.</ref> Although the invading troops [[Battle of Rovine|were defeated somewhere in a ''rovină'']] ("ragged marshland") in Oltenia, the chaos created by the threat of attacks allowed a group of ''boyars'' to put [[Vlad I of Wallachia|Vlad I the Usurper]] (1395–1397) on the throne.<ref name='Treptow 1997 99'/>{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=254}} Thus Mircea I was forced to take refuge in Transylvania, where he agreed to be Sigismund I of Hungary's vassal.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=203}}<ref>Treptow, Popa 1996, p. 176.</ref> He was restored to the throne and participated in the disastrous crusade of Nicopolis organized by Sigismund I.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=203}}<ref name="Treptow, Popa 1996, p. 148"/>{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=254}}
=== Establishment of Moldavia ===
{{main|Foundation of Moldavia}}
After 1241 the territory between the [[Eastern Carpathians]] and the Dniester was controlled by the Golden Horde.{{sfn|Georgescu|1991|p=17}}{{sfn|Brezianu|Spânu|2007|p=xxiv}}
Nevertheless, the contemporary Thomas Tuscus's reference to the Romanians' conflict with the [[Halych-Volhynia|Ruthenians]] in 1277 suggests that Romanian political entities existed in northern Moldavia at that time.{{sfn|Georgescu|1991|p=17}}<ref name='Treptow 1997 69'>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 69.</ref> In 1345 [[House of Lacković|Andrew Lackfi]], the count of the Székelys led an army over the Carpathians and occupied this region where a border province was organized by Louis I of Hungary.{{sfn|Brezianu|Spânu|2007|p=xxiv}}
{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=166}}{{sfn|Georgescu|1991|p=17-18}}
[[File:Ceatatea Neamtului 01.JPG|thumb|left|200px|alt=Neamţ Citadel|[[Neamţ Citadel|Fortress at Neamţ]]]]
Romanian historical tradition links the foundation of Moldavia to [[Foundation of Moldavia#'Dismounting' by Dragoş|the "dismounting of Dragoş"]], a Romanian ''voivode'' from Maramureş.<ref>Treptow, Popa 1996, p. 88.</ref> Although [[Dragoş]] was succeeded by his son, [[Sas of Moldavia|Sas]], his line did not last long.{{sfn|Georgescu|1991|p=18}}<ref>Treptow, Popa 1996, p. li.</ref> His descendants were soon expelled by Bogdan, a former ''voivode'' of Maramureş who fled to Moldavia and joined with local ''boyars'' in a revolt.<ref>Vásáry 2005, p. 156.</ref>{{sfn|Pop|1999|pp=48-49}}<ref>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 72.</ref>
In Moldavia, agriculture and animal raising remained the principal economic activities.{{sfn|Georgescu|1991|p=22}} Similarly to Wallachia, wooden [[plow]] remained the main agricultural tool throughout the Middle Ages.{{sfn|Georgescu|1991|p=23}} The constant clearing of land shows that finding new land was still preferred to [[crop rotation]].{{sfn|Georgescu|1991|p=23}} The establishment of the principality enhanced the security of travel, thus Moldavia could also profit from the transit trade between Poland and the Black Sea ports.<ref name='Sedlar 356'/>{{sfn|Georgescu|1991|p=22}} The first local coins were minted in 1377, under [[Peter I Muşat]] (''c.'' 1375–1391).{{sfn|Brezianu|Spânu|2007|p=xxv}}
The succession to the throne, similarly to Wallachia, was governed by the hereditary-elective principle.<ref name='Treptow 1997 83'>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 83.</ref> Thus either a legitimate or an illegitimate member of the [[Muşatin family]] could be proclaimed prince by an assembly of the ''boyars''.<ref name='Treptow 1997 83'/>{{sfn|Georgescu|1991|p=35}}{{sfn|Brezianu|Spânu|2007|p=284}} In 1387 Peter I Muşat recognized [[Władysław II Jagiełło]] of Poland as his suzerain, but Hungary also maintained its claim of suzerainty over the principality.{{sfn|Brezianu|Spânu|2007|p=xxv}}
<ref name='Treptow 1997 70'>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 70.</ref> Therefore, the princes of Moldavia could counterbalance the influence of Poland and Hungary by playing one off against the other.<ref name='Treptow 1997 70'/>
=== Dobruja ===
{{main|Principality of Karvuna}}
After 1242 most of the territory between the Danube and the [[Black Sea]] was included in the area dominated by the Mongols.{{sfn|Sălăgean|2005|p=202}} Although the [[Byzantine Empire]] reestablished control over the Danube Delta in the 1260s, it fell again under the direct rule of the Golden Horde sometime before 1337.{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=215}}<ref name="Vásáry 2005, p. 161">Vásáry 2005, p. 161.</ref> By the end of the 13th century, flourishing communities of [[Republic of Genoa|Genoese]] merchants had settled in the towns of [[Vicina (town)|Vicina]], [[Chilia Veche|Chilia]] and [[Licostomo]].<ref name="Vásáry 2005, p. 161"/>
Towards the middle of the 14th century a state dependent of the Byzantine Empire, known as "[[Principality of Karvuna|the country of Cavarna]]", developed in the region.{{sfn|Sălăgean|2005|p=202}} Its first known ruler was Balica.{{sfn|Sălăgean|2005|p=202}}{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=367}} He was succeeded by his brother, [[Dobrotitsa]], for whom part of his holdings, Dobruja, received its name.{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=367}} In about 1385 Ivanco became the ruler of the territory, but he soon disappeared during an Ottoman expedition.{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=253}}{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=423}} Dobruja was occupied by Mircea I of Wallachia in 1390 and by the Ottomans in 1395.{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=423}}
== Towards Ottoman domination (1397–1529) ==
=== Intra-Carpathian regions ===
{{See also|Bobâlna revolt|John Hunyadi}}
[[File:CristianSB (36).jpg|thumb|right|200px|alt=Saxon church|Fortified Saxon church at [[Cristian, Sibiu]]]]
In order to establish a zone of buffer states, Sigismund I of Hungary tried to draw the neighboring Orthodox rulers under his own suzerainty by granting them estates in his kingdom.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=232}} For example, [[Stefan Lazarević]] of Serbia received [[Satu Mare]], [[Baia Mare]] and [[Baia Sprie]] in modern Romania, and Mircea I of Wallachia was granted [[Făgăraş]].{{sfn|Engel|2001|pp=232-233}} Sigismund I was also the first monarch who recognized, in 1419, the legislative competence of the [[Estates of the realm|Estates]] in Transylvania.{{sfn|Makkai|1994|p=224}} On his initiative, their assembly declared that in case of an Ottoman attack, every third nobleman and every tenth serf would take up arms.{{sfn|Makkai|1994|p=224}} Indeed, from 1420 Ottoman attacks occurred on an annual basis.{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=259}} In this period many Saxon churches, and later the Székely churches of the [[Csík County|Ciuc region]], were fortified, which [[Fortified churches in Transylvania|gave local architecture a distinctive appearance]].{{sfn|Makkai|1994|p=241}}
The increasing defense costs fell primarily on the serfs: the rent on the land was raised and extraordinary taxes were imposed.{{sfn|Makkai|1994|pp=224-225}} The first peasant revolt in the territory of modern Romania broke out due to the efforts taken by the bishop of Transylvania to collect the church taxes.{{sfn|Makkai|1994|p=225}}<ref name='Treptow 1997 79'>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 79.</ref> Led by Anton Budai Nagy, the rebellious peasants, who called themselves "the commune of the rightful Hungarian and Romanian inhabitants of this part of Transylvania", established a fortified camp on the [[Bobâlna]] hill early in 1437.{{sfn|Makkai|1994|p=225}}<ref name='Treptow 1996 44'>Treptow, Popa 1996, p. 44.</ref>{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=258}} They fought two important battles against the noblemen;{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=259}} the first one, at Bobâlna, was won by the peasants, and the second one, near the [[Apatiu River]], had no clear winner.{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=259}} The leaders of the noblemen, the Saxons and the Székelys, however, set up a "brotherly union" in order to join forces and crushed the peasants' resistance by the end of January 1438.<ref name='Treptow 1997 79'/><ref name='Treptow 1996 44'/>{{sfn|Makkai|1994|p=226}}
The Ottomans' attempt to conquer new territories led to a better organized policy against them.{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=260}} The temporary union of the Eastern and Western Churches proclaimed by the [[Council of Florence]] in 1439 also created a favorable background for the concentration of Christian forces.{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=260}}<ref>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, pp. 109–110.</ref> Christendom found its champion in [[John Hunyadi]] who gained a series of victories over the Ottomans after 1441.<ref>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 111.</ref>{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=261}} For instance, in 1442 he routed an Ottoman army that had been devastating Transylvania.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=285}}{{sfn|Makkai|1994|p=227}} Through his last victory over [[Mehmed II]] at the [[Siege of Belgrade (1456)|siege of Belgrade]] (in modern Serbia) in 1456, he saved the kingdom from Ottoman occupation for several decades.{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=262}} During the reign of his son, [[Matthias I of Hungary]] (1458–1490), the Ottomans launched only one serious attack against Transylvania in 1479 when they were defeated at [[Câmpul Pâinii]].{{sfn|Makkai|1994|p=231}}
Matthias I used his officials to assert royal prerogatives that had already fallen into disuse.<ref>Sedlar 1994, p. 272.</ref> The noblemen found it particularly irksome that the ''lucrum camarae'', a tax from which they had been exempted was replaced with a new tax.{{sfn|Makkai|1994|p=230}} In Transylvania, the "Three Nations" entered into a formal alliance against the king in 1467, but he quickly intervened and took the disorganized rebels by surprise.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=302}}{{sfn|Makkai|1994|pp=230-231}}
By that time, the land once held in common by the Székely community had gradually become divided into smaller and smaller units; thus a vast number of the free warrior-peasants had to enter the service of their more prosperous fellow Székelys.{{sfn|Makkai|1994|p=236}} This social stratification was formally recognized by a royal decree in 1473.{{sfn|Makkai|1994|p=236}} Thereafter those who performed mounted military service were differentiated from those who fought as foot-soldiers; those who were unable to finance themselves even as foot-soldiers were legally reduced to servitude.{{sfn|Makkai|1994|pp=236-237}}
The prominence of the German element in the towns sometimes led to conflicts along ethnic lines.<ref name='Sedlar 410'>Sedlar 1994, p. 410.</ref> Thus the struggle for leadership in Cluj (now [[Cluj-Napoca]]) between Hungarians and Saxons only came to an end in 1458 by establishing a rule that municipal offices must be shared equally between the two groups.<ref name='Sedlar 410'/> In 1486, Matthias I united all the Saxon districts in Transylvania in the "University of the Saxons" under the leadership of the elected mayor of [[Sibiu]].{{sfn|Makkai|1994|p=235}}{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=233}}
After Matthias I's death, the assembly of the Estates, called Diet, began to function as a regular organ of power.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=348}} The peasantry suffered most from the rule of the Estates, for instance, by the limitation of their right to free movement.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=356}} In 1514 thousands of peasants who had been summoned to [[Buda]] (now [[Budapest]], in modern Hungary) to join the crusade proclaimed by [[Pope Leo X]] against the Ottomans turned the weapons against their masters.{{sfn|Pop|1999|p=68}} The rebels, led by the Székely [[George Dózsa]], occupied several towns, such as Oradea and Şoimoş, but on July 15 [[John Szapolyai]], the ''voivode'' defeated them at [[Timișoara]].{{sfn|Engel|2001|pp=363-364}} As a retaliation, the Diet decreed that peasants were to be tied to the land "perpetually".{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=364}}<ref>Sedlar 1994, p.320.</ref>
The downfall of the Kingdom of Hungary was marked by the [[battle of Mohács]] (Hungary) where the royal army was annihilated by the Ottomans on August 29, 1526.<ref>Treptow, Popa 1996, p. xvii.</ref>{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=370}}<ref>Klepper 2002, p. 61.</ref> Thereafter the noblemen's political factions engaged in conflict and elected two kings.{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=180}} One of them, John I Szapolyai (1526–1540) was supported by the lesser nobility, while [[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand I of Habsburg]] (1526–1564) was recognized mainly in the kingdom's western counties, but the Transylvanian Saxons also supported him.{{sfn|Pop|1999|p=68}}{{sfn|Barta|1994|p=249}} Seeking the assistance of the Ottomans, John I had to pay homage to the sultan at [[Mohács]] in 1529.{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=371}}
=== Wallachia ===
{{See also|Mircea I of Wallachia|Vlad III the Impaler}}
[[Image:Tara Rumaneasca map.png|thumb|right|250px|alt=Map of Wallachia around 1404|Wallachia (''c.'' 1404)]]
After the battle of Nicopolis, the Ottomans occupied Bulgaria and could attack Wallachia more easily.{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=254}} Mircea I the Old, however, could reoccupy Dobruja in 1402 by taking advantage of the Ottomans' difficulties after their defeat by Timur Lenk in the [[battle of Ankara]].{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=254}}{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=505}} He even intervened in the [[Ottoman Interregnum|Ottoman civil war]] and supported the struggle of Musa and Mustafa against their brother, [[Mehmed I]].{{sfn|Pop|2005|pp=254-255}}<ref>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 100.</ref> After the two pretenders had been defeated, the Ottomans annexed again Dobruja and occupied [[Giurgiu]], and Mircea I was forced to pay an annual tribute to the sultan.{{sfn|Pop|2005|pp=255, 284}}{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=508}} Under Mircea I iron mines were opened at [[Baia de Fier]] and copper mining began at [[Baia de Aramă]].{{sfn|Georgescu|1991|p=24}}{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=215}} In addition, [[sulfur]] and [[amber]] were extracted in the region of [[Buzău]].{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=215}}
After Mircea I's death, princes succeeded one another on the throne with devastating frequency.<ref name='Sedlar 32'/> For instance, [[Michael I of Wallachia|Michael I]] (1418–1420) was overthrown by his cousin, [[Dan II of Wallachia|Dan II]] (1420–1431), and in the next decade the throne was occupied with frequent changes either by Dan II or by his cousin, [[Radu II of Wallachia|Radu II the Bald]] (1421–1427), the former being supported by Sigismund I of Hungary and the latter by the Ottomans.<ref>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 101.</ref><ref>Treptow, Popa 1996, pp. xlvii–xlviii.</ref>{{sfn|Engel|2001|p=236}}
[[Alexander I Aldea]] (1431–1436) was the first Romanian ruler to be forced to render military service to the Ottomans.<ref>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 105.</ref> Two decades later, [[Vlad III the Impaler]] (1448, 1456–1462, 1476), notorious as the model for the [[Count Dracula|Dracula legend]], turned against the Ottoman Empire.<ref>Sedlar 1994, p. 56.</ref><ref>Treptow, Popa 1996, p. xlviii.</ref> He carried out a series of attacks across the Danube in the winter of 1461–1462.{{sfn|Pop|1999|p=63}}{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=263}}<ref>Treptow, Popa 1996, p. 215.</ref> The response was a massive invasion led by Mehmed II who drove Vlad III from the throne and replaced him with his brother, [[Radu III the Fair]] (1462–1475).<ref>Treptow, Popa 1996, pp. xlviii., 215.</ref> Due to the frequent military operations, the Wallachian Plain was heavily depopulated after the end of the 14th century.{{sfn|Georgescu|1991|p=21}} On the other hand, Wallachia received a steady flow of immigrants, mostly from the [[Balkans]].{{sfn|Georgescu|1991|p=22}}
After 1462 Wallachia preserved its autonomy mainly through the intervention of Stephen the Great of Moldavia.{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=271}} At the end of the century, however, [[Radu IV the Great]] (1495–1508) became an obedient subject of the sultan and visited [[Istanbul]] annually to personally offer the tribute.{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=272}} Even so, he could only stay in power by collaborating with the powerful [[Craioveşti]] family, strongly connected to the Ottomans by trading.{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=272}} In 1512 a member of this family, [[Neagoe Basarab|Neagoe]] (1512–1521) rose to throne, but he adopted the dynastic name of Basarab in order to legitimize his rule.{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=273}}<ref name='Treptow 1996 147'>Treptow, Popa 1996, p. 147.</ref> He wrote the first original work of [[Romanian literature]], titled ''Teachings'', to his son, Teodosius on moral, political, and military questions.<ref name='Treptow 1996 147'/>{{sfn|Georgescu|1991|p=68}}
Under Theodosius I (1521–1522) the Ottoman governor of Nicopolis take advantage of the internal fights among the ''boyar'' parties, and thus dominated the political life of Wallachia.{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=274}} Due to the imminent danger of annexation, the ''boyars'' grouped around [[Radu of Afumaţi|Radu V of Afumaţi]] (1522–1529) who fought about 20 battles against the Ottomans.{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=274}}<ref>Treptow, Popa 1996, pp. xlviii-xlvix.</ref> Finally, he was, in 1525, forced to accept Ottoman suzerainty and the rise of the tribute.{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=274}}
=== Moldavia ===
{{See also|Alexander the Good|Stephen III of Moldavia}}
The Orthodox Metropolitan See of Moldavia was recognized by the Ecumenical Patriarch during the reign of [[Alexander the Good|Alexander I the Good]] (1400–1432).<ref name='Treptow 1996 24'>Treptow, Popa 1996, p. 24.</ref> He reinforced Moldavia's traditional pro-Polish orientation and declared himself a vassal of Władysław II of Poland in 1406.{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=255}} Thenceforth, the Moldavian armies fought together with the Poles against the [[Teutonic Knights]].{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=255}} The first Ottoman attack on Moldavia in 1420 was also repulsed by him.<ref name='Treptow 1997 109'>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 109.</ref> Alexander I's death was followed by a long period of political instability, characterized by frequent fights for the throne.<ref name='Treptow 1997 109'/>{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=256}} For instance, the struggle of his sons, [[Iliaş of Moldavia|Iliaş I]] (1432–1442) and [[Stephen II of Moldavia|Stephen II]] (1433–1447) ended in 1435 by the division of the country.{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=256}}<ref name='Treptow 1996 lii'>Treptow, Popa 1996, p. lii.</ref>
Although [[cottage industries]], both in ''boyar'' and peasant households, were still the main source of clothing, food and construction, specialized production, such as [[weaving]] and pottery, started to develop by the middle of the 15th century.{{sfn|Georgescu|1991|p=23}} The first [[oil well]]s went into production in 1440, but their oil was also only for household use.{{sfn|Georgescu|1991|pp=24-25}} In Moldavia, Gypsy slaves were first mentioned in 1428 when Alexander I awarded 31 Gypsy families to the [[Bistriţa Monastery]].{{sfn|Achim|2004|p=14}} In time Gypsies became specialized in several crafts: for example, throughout the Middle Ages the working of iron was an occupation reserved almost exclusively for them.{{sfn|Achim|2004|p=47}}
[[Peter III Aaron]] (1451–1457) was the first prince who agreed to pay tribute to the Ottomans in 1456.{{sfn|Brezianu|Spânu|2007|p=284}}
{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=256}} He was ousted by his nephew, Stephen, with the support of Vlad the Impaler of Wallachia.<ref name='Treptow 1997 115'>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 115.</ref> Stephen III the Great was to be the most important medieval Romanian monarch who managed to uphold Moldavia's autonomy against Hungary, Poland and the Ottoman Empire.<ref name='Sedlar 396'>Sedlar 1994, p. 396.</ref>{{sfn|Pop|1999|p=64}}
[[Image:Europe in 1470.png|thumb|left|200px|alt=Europe around 1470|Europe around 1470]]
In the early years of his reign, he remained allied with Poland and the Ottoman Empire,<ref name='Treptow 1997 115'/> and even joined the Ottomans in attacking Wallachia.<ref name='Treptow 1997 115'/> He also supported the rebellion of 1467 of the Transylvanian Estates; therefore Matthias I of Hungary launched an expedition against Moldavia, but the royal army was defeated in the [[battle of Baia]].{{sfn|Brezianu|Spânu|2007|p=338}}
{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=266}} He came to view the Ottoman Empire as his chief enemy in the 1470s, and in 1474 he refused to pay tribute.<ref name='Sedlar 396'/>{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=267}}<ref name='Treptow 1997 116'>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 116.</ref> He soon received the ultimatum of Mehmed II who demanded the surrender of Chilia, a fortress recently captured from Wallachia.<ref name='Treptow 1997 116'/> Upon Stephen III's refusal, a large Ottoman army was sent against Moldavia.<ref name='Treptow 1997 116'/> He called on [[Pope Sixtus IV]], pleading for a crusade.{{sfn|Brezianu|Spânu|2007|p=338}} Although the pope acknowledged his merits, by naming him "the Athlete of Christ", no anti-Ottoman coalition materialized.{{sfn|Brezianu|Spânu|2007|p=338}} Even without external military support, Stephen the Great led his troops to victory in the [[battle of Vaslui]] on January 10, 1475.<ref name='Sedlar 396'/>{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=267}} Following the battle, he addressed a letter to the Christian princes, expressing the idea that the two Romanian principalities were the "gateway to the Christian world", and if they fell "all Christendom would be in danger".{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=267}}{{sfn|Georgescu|1991|p=45}}
He also recognized Matthias I of Hungary as his suzerain and received, in return, Ciceu and Cetatea de Baltă in Transylvania.<ref name='Treptow 1997 116'/> The following year, however, he found himself alone when Mehmed II invaded Moldavia.{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=267}} The Moldavian army was defeated in the [[Battle of Valea Albă]], but the Ottomans, suffering from a lack of provisions and an outbreak of the [[Plague (disease)|plague]], were forced to retreat.<ref>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, pp. 116–117.</ref> Stephen the Great suffered the greatest setback of his reign in 1484 when the Ottomans captured Chilia and [[Cetatea Alba]] (now Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi, Ukraine) on the Black Sea.<ref name='Sedlar 396'/> Having tried unsuccessfully to regain the fortresses in 1485, he concluded a peace with the sultan and agreed to pay tribute to him.{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=269}}
He was succeeded by his son, [[Bogdan III the One-Eyed]] (1504–1517) whose reign was troubled by a long series of military conflicts with Poland and Wallachia.{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=276}} The good relations with Poland were reestablished under the reign of Stephen IV the Younger (1517–1527).{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=276}} His successor, [[Peter IV Rareş]] (1527–1538, 1541–1546) intervened in the struggle for the crown of the Kingdom of Hungary: on the order of the sultan, in 1529 he invaded the [[Székely Land]] and defeated the army of Ferdinand I's partisans.{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=277}}
== Ottoman suzerainty (1530–1594) ==
=== Establishment of Principality of Transylvania ===
{{main|Principality of Transylvania (1571–1711)}}
After 1529, resistance to John I in Transylvania was broken in a series of small campaigns.{{sfn|Barta|1994|p=249}} For instance, the last Transylvanian magnate to side with Ferdinánd I, Stephen Majláth went over to John I in early 1532, and Sibiu was occupied in 1536.{{sfn|Barta|1994|p=249}} On February 24, 1538, [[Treaty of Oradea|a secret pact was signed in Oradea]] by the representatives of the two kings of Hungary.{{sfn|Barta|1994|p=251}} According to the treaty, both rulers were allowed to retain the territories which they then held, but the childless John I promised to recognize the [[Habsburgs]]' succession.{{sfn|Barta|1994|p=251}}
[[File:Suleiman receiving Isabella and her son Sigismund circa 1540.jpg|thumb|200px|alt=Queen Isabella before Suleiman I|[[Suleiman the Magnificent|Suleiman I]] receiving [[Isabella Jagiellon|Queen Isabella]] and [[John II Sigismund Zápolya|her infant son]] at [[Buda]] (1541)]]
However, John I married a daughter of [[Sigismund I of Poland]], [[Isabella Jagiellon|Isabella]], who in 1540 bore him a son.{{sfn|Kontler|1999|p=140}} Already dying, the king took an oath from his barons to evade the treaty of Oradea, and his counselor, [[George Martinuzzi]], had the infant [[John II Sigismund Zápolya|John II Sigismund]] elected as king (1540–1571).{{sfn|Kontler|1999|pp=140-142}} Ferdinand I sent troops to take Buda, but they withdrew upon the advance of the Ottoman army.{{sfn|Kontler|1999|p=142}} On August 29, 1541 [[Suleiman the Magnificent|Suleiman I]] summoned the Hungarian lords to his camp, and while the reception was taking place, [[Janissary|his troops]] occupied the capital of the kingdom.{{sfn|Barta|1994|p=253}} At the same time the sultan assigned the territories of the kingdom east of the Tisa to Queen Isabella and her son in return for an annual tribute.{{sfn|Kontler|1999|p=142}}
On October 18, the kingdom's eastern territories, including Transylvania, swore allegiance to the infant king at the Diet of [[Debrecen]] (Hungary).{{sfn|Barta|1994|p=254}} Thus a separate country started to emerge, although George Martinuzzi was still negotiating with Ferdinand I on the reunification of the kingdom.{{sfn|Kontler|1999|p=146}} For this purpose, in 1551 Ferdinand I sent an army into Transylvania where he was recognized as sole ruler by the Diet.{{sfn|Barta|1994|p=257}} The Ottomans, however, occupied a great part of Banat in 1552, and neither could Ferdinand I consolidate his rule over the kingdom's eastern territories.{{sfn|Kontler|1999|p=148}}{{sfn|Pop|2005|pp=283-284}} Finally, the Diet, meeting in Sebeş on March 12, 1556, swore again allegiance to "the son of King John", thus the young king and his mother returned to Transylvania.{{sfn|Kontler|1999|p=148}}{{sfn|Barta|1994|p=258}}
The 16th century also brought about major religious changes: the Saxons converted to [[Lutheranism]], while most of the Hungarians converted to [[Calvinism]] or [[Unitarianism]]; only the Székelys remained more than the other "nations" Catholic.{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=281}}{{sfn|Barta|1994|p=287}} In 1568, the Transylvanian Diet at Torda decreed the free worship of these four "received denominations", but Orthodoxy still continued to be only tolerated.{{sfn|Georgescu|1991|p=41}}{{sfn|Kontler|1999|p=152}} The Romanians' status worsened in this period.<ref name='Treptow 1997 134'>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 134.</ref> The Diets of 1554 and 1555 decided that a Catholic or Protestant peasant could not be accused of a crime except there were seven Catholic or Protestant witnesses against him, while an Orthodox peasant could be accused if there were three Catholic or Protestant or seven Orthodox witnesses.<ref name='Treptow 1997 134'/> The Diet of 1559 also decreed that Romanians who had settled on lands abandoned by Catholic serfs were obliged to pay the tithe.{{sfn|Barta|1994|p=282}}
{{Quote|''It'' (Transylvania) ''is inhabited by three nations – Székelys, Hungarians and Saxons. I should add the Romanians who – even though they easily equal the others in number – have no liberties, no nobility and no rights of their own, except for a small number living in the district of [[Haţeg]], where it is believed that the capital of [[Decebalus]] lay, and who were made nobles during the time of John Hunyadi, a native of that place, because they always took part tirelessly in the battles against the Turks. All others are common people, serfs of the Hungarians and without settlements of their own, scattered everywhere, throughout the entire country, rarely settled in open places, most of them retired in the woods, leading an unfortunate life alongside their flocks.''|[[Antun Vrančić]]: ''On the Situation of Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia''{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=304}}<ref>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, pp. 134–135</ref>}}
[[File:RO SB Saint Mary Lutheran church 1.jpg|thumb|left|200px|alt=Church in Sibiu|[[Sibiu Lutheran Cathedral|Evangelical Church in Sibiu]]]]
From the Székelys, continuing warfare demanded increased military service, and the royal administration imposed special taxes on them.{{sfn|Barta|1994|p=283}} Although the leaders of the Székely community were exempted from taxation in 1554, but all the foot soldiers continued to be taxed, resulting in a double burden of military and monetary obligations for them.{{sfn|Barta|1994|p=283}} In 1562 many Székelys took up arms against John II Sigismund, but they were defeated.{{sfn|Barta|1994|p=284}} The Saxon towns continued to develop even in the years of upheaval.{{sfn|Barta|1994|p=274}}<ref name='Treptow 1997 128'>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 128.</ref> Their population, however, increased slowly, mainly as a consequence of the Saxons' traditional desire for segregation: even Hungarian craftsmen and merchants were prohibited from settling in their towns.{{sfn|Barta|1994|p=274}}
In the Treaty of Speyer of August 16, 1570, John II Sigismund acknowledged his rival, [[Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian I]] (1564–1576) as the lawful king of Hungary and adopted the title of "prince of Transylvania and parts of the Kingdom of Hungary".{{sfn|Kontler|1999|p=148}}{{sfn|Barta|1994|pp=259-260}} The treaty also marked out the borders of the new principality, which included not only the historical province of Transylvania, but also some neighboring counties, such as Bihor and Maramureş, thenceforward collectively known as [[Partium]].{{sfn|Barta|1994|p=271}} The death of John II Sigismund in 1571 threatened to throw the country again into the hands of the Habsburgs whose officers supported the Unitarian [[Gáspár Bekes]].{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=282}}{{sfn|Barta|1994|p=260}} Now the sultan appointed [[Stephen Báthory]], a Catholic politician, ''voivode''.{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=282}}{{sfn|Barta|1994|p=260}}
The decisive battle between the two candidates was won by Stephen Báthory at [[Sânpaul, Mureş|Sânpaul]] on July 8, 1575.{{sfn|Barta|1994|p=260}} In the same year, he was elected king of Poland, thus a personal union was formed between the two countries that lasted until his death in 1586.{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=283}} He left the administration of the principality first to his brother, [[Christopher Báthory]] (1575–1581), and then to his brother's minor son, [[Sigismund Báthory]] (1581–1602), bestowing on them the title of ''voivode'', while he himself took the title of prince.{{sfn|Barta|1994|p=263}}<ref>Treptow, Popa 1996, p. lix.</ref>
In February, 1594 Sigismund Báthory announced that his country would join the anti-Ottoman alliance formed by the [[Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor|Holy Roman Emperor, Rudolf II]], [[Philip II of Spain]] and many smaller Italian and German states.{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=306}}{{sfn|Barta|1994|p=294}} Although the Estates twice refused to endorse the declaration of war, Transylvania joined the alliance on January 28, 1595 after the leaders of the opposition had been executed on the order of the monarch.{{sfn|Barta|1994|p=294}} In return Rudolph II recognized Sigismund's title of prince.{{sfn|Barta|1994|p=294}}
=== Wallachia ===
The short and unworthy reigns of Radu V’s successors only increased the crisis of Wallachia.{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=275}} Starting with [[Mircea the Shepherd]] (1545–1559), the first prince placed on the throne by the sultan, the crown became negotiable, according to the largest tribute offered.{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=275}}<ref>Klepper 2002, p. 69.</ref> Even Michael the Brave who in time would turn against the Ottomans ascended the throne with the support of some people who had influence with the [[Sublime Porte]], among them [[Edward Barton (English diplomat)|Sir Edward Barton]], the [[English people|English]] ambassador to Istanbul.{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=306}}{{sfn|Pop|1999|p=73}}<ref name='Treptow 1997 143'>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 143.</ref>
He soon embarked upon a program to strengthen the central authority by replacing the members of the ''sfatul domnesc'', an advisory body consisting of ''boyars'', with ''dregători'', that is officials personally loyal to him.<ref>Treptow, Popa 1996, pp. 91., 130., 181.</ref> Michael the Brave also adopted an anti-Ottoman policy, and upon his initiative Sigismund Báthory of Transylvania and [[Aaron the Tyrant]] of Moldavia (1591–1595) signed a treaty to form an anti-Ottoman alliance.{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=306}} The rebellion started by the massacre of all the Ottomans in Wallachia on November 13, 1594.<ref name='Treptow 1997 143'/>
=== Moldavia ===
In 1531 Peter IV Rareş invaded Poland in order to reoccupy the [[Pokuttya|Pocuţia]] region (in modern Ukraine), but his army was defeated.{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=277}}<ref name='Treptow 1997 128'/> Now he concluded a secret treaty with Ferdinand I of Hungary, but soon had to seek refugee in Transylvania when Suleiman I led an army against him.{{sfn|Pop|2005|pp=277-278}} This was the first occasion when a prince, Stephen V Lăcustă (1538–1540) was appointed by the sultan.{{sfn|Georgescu|1991|p=68}}{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=278}} At the same time, the sultan occupied [[Brăila]] and [[Tighina]] (now in [[Moldova]]), and the [[Budjak]] region (now in Ukraine).{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=278}} Peter IV Rareş recovered his throne in exchange for a large sum of money in 1541.{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=278}} His death was followed by a period characterized by fights between pretenders to the throne and among the ''boyar'' parties.{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=278}}
The idea of anti-Ottoman struggle was revived by [[John III the Terrible]] (1572–1574) who refused to pay the tribute to the sultan.<ref name='Treptow 1997 130'>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 130.</ref>{{sfn|Pop|2005|pp=278-279}} As a result, Ottoman and Wallachian troops invaded Moldavia, but they were defeated by John III in a surprise attack near Jilişte.<ref name='Treptow 1997 130'/> Now the sultan sent a large army against Moldavia, and the prince was captured and quartered.<ref>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, pp. 130–131.</ref> Next Aaron the Tyrant joined the anti-Ottoman coalition of Transylvania and Wallachia, and started a rebellion on November 13, 1594, simultaneously with Michael the Brave of Wallachia.{{sfn|Pop|2005|pp=306-307}}
The 16th century was characterized by the flourishing of ecclesiastical [[mural painting]] whose technique have remained a secret until today.{{sfn|Pop|2005|pp=297-298}} For example, the interior and exterior frescoes of the [[Voroneţ Monastery]] represent this "[[Painted churches of northern Moldavia|Moldavian style]]".{{sfn|Pop|2005|pp=296-297}}
== Age of Michael the Brave (1595–1601) ==
{{main|Michael the Brave|Long War (Ottoman wars)}}
[[Image:MihaiViteazul.jpg|thumb|right|200px|alt=Michael the Brave|[[Michael the Brave]]]]
[[Image:Mihai 1600.png|thumb|right|200px|alt=Map of Moldavia, Transylvania and Wallachia|Moldavia, Transylvania and Wallachia in 1600]]
Following their coordinated uprising, Michael the Brave attacked Ottoman strongholds along the Danube and recovered Giurgiu and Brăila, while Aaron the Tyrant seized [[Izmail|Ismail]] (now in Ukraine).<ref>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, pp 143–144.</ref> In response, the sultan ordered the [[Grand Vizier]], [[Sinan Pasha]] to invade Wallachia.<ref name='Treptow 1997 144'>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 144.</ref>{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=307}} The two princes needed the support of Sigismund Báthory who took advantage of the situation to make himself suzerain of Wallachia and Moldavia.{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=307}} When Aaron the Tyrant refused Sigismund Báthory's conditions, he was replaced by the latter's protégé, [[Ştefan Răzvan]] (1595) on the throne.<ref name='Treptow 1997 144'/>{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=307}}
According to the treaty signed by Michael the Brave on May 20, 1595 in Alba Iulia, Sigismund Báthory became the ruler of the three principalities and adopted the title of "prince of Transylvania, Moldavia and Transalpine Wallachia".{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=307}} The treaty stipulated, that the taxes would be established in Wallachia by the Transylvanian Diet, together with a council of 12 Wallachian ''boyars''.<ref name='Treptow 1997 144'/>{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=307}}{{sfn|Georgescu|1991|p=30}} Around that time, the peasants were bound to the land both in Wallachia and Moldavia.{{sfn|Georgescu|1991|p=30}}
Ottoman troops entered Wallachia in the summer, but they were defeated by Michael the Brave at [[Battle of Călugăreni|Călugăreni]] and by the united armies of the three principalities at Giurgiu.{{sfn|Pop|2005|pp=308-309}}<ref>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, pp. 144–145.</ref> In the meantime, however, the Poles had invaded Moldavia and replaced Ştefan Răzvan by [[Ieremia Movilă]] (1595–1606).<ref>Klepper 2002, p. 79.</ref> In June 1598 Michael the Brave recognized the suzerainty of Emperor Rudolph II, who had promised to grant subsidies to him to finance his mercenaries.{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=309}}
On March 30, 1599 Sigismund Báthory abdicated the throne in favor of his cousin, [[Andrew Báthory]] (1599).<ref name='Treptow 1997 147'>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 147.</ref> The new prince was loyal to the Poles and promptly demanded that Michael the Brave accept his suzerainty.<ref name='Treptow 1997 147'/>{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=310}} The latter secured the emperor's approval for an invasion of Transylvania and attacked the principality where the Székelys also joined him.<ref name='Treptow 1997 147'/> He [[Battle of Şelimbăr|defeated his opponent at Şelimbar]] on October 28, 1599 and entered Alba Iulia.{{sfn|Pop|2005|pp=310-311}} Here the Diet recognized him as imperial governor.{{sfn|Barta|1994|p=296}} He respected the traditional organization of Transylvania, and even crushed a revolt of the Romanian peasants, but forced the Diet to relieve the Orthodox priests of feudal obligations.<ref>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 148.</ref> In the spring of 1600, he invaded Moldavia in the name of the emperor and established control over it.<ref>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, pp. 149–150.</ref> In July he even proclaimed himself "prince of Wallachia, Transylvania, and all of Moldavia" in [[Iaşi]], thus bringing about the union of the three principalities.<ref>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 150.</ref>{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=312}}
However, the Hungarian noblemen, dissatisfied with the disorder, rebelled against his rule, and [[Battle of Mirăslău|defeated him at Mirăslău]] on September 18, 1600.{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=312}} At the same time, the Poles invaded Moldavia and restored Ieremia Movilă to the throne; then they entered Wallachia, where [[Simion Movilă]] defeated Michael the Brave at Buzău.{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=312}}<ref>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, pp. 150–151.</ref> In this moment of crisis, Michael the Brave left for [[Prague]] to appeal to the emperor for support.<ref name='Treptow 1997 151'>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 151.</ref> He returned to Transylvania in July 1601 at the head of an imperial army.<ref name='Treptow 1997 151'/> Cooperating with the imperial general, [[Giorgio Basta]], he [[Battle of Guruslău|defeated the Transylvanian troops at Guruslău]] on August 3, but on August 19 he was assassinated on the order of his former ally, Giorgio Basta.<ref name='Treptow 1997 151'/>{{sfn|Pop|2005|p=313}}
== After the first union ==
{{main|Early Modern Romania}}
After Michael the Brave's death, Transylvania was ruled by an imperial military commission, but under [[Stephen Bocskay]] (1604–1606) the principality voluntarily accepted Ottoman suzerainty.<ref>Klepper 2002, p. 84.</ref> In the next decades, the princes of Transylvania, among them [[Gabriel Bethlen]] (1613–1629), made several unsuccessful attempts to unify Transylvania, Wallachia and Moldavia.{{sfn|Boia|1997|p=39}}<ref>Klepper 2002, pp. 84–85.</ref>
Wallachia and Moldavia fell back under the control of the Ottoman Empire after Michael the Brave's death.<ref name='Klepper 89'>Klepper 2002, p. 89.</ref> [[Radu Mihnea]], prince of Wallachia (1611–1616, 1623–1626) and of Moldavia (1616–1623), was the first ruler to appoint [[Greeks]] from the [[Phanar]] district of Istanbul to high government posts.<ref name='Klepper 89'/> This started a trend that ultimately led to the so-called "[[Phanariotes|Phanariot period]]" in Romania’s history.<ref name='Klepper 89'/>
== See also ==
*[[Banat in the Middle Ages]]
*[[List of rulers of Wallachia|List of Wallachian rulers]] (up to 1859)
*[[List of rulers of Moldavia|List of Moldavian rulers]] (up to 1859)
*[[List of rulers of Transylvania|List of Transylvanian rulers]] (up to 1918)
== Footnotes ==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}
== References ==
*{{cite book |last= Achim |first= Viorel |year=2004 |title= The Roma in Romanian History |publisher= Central European University Press |ISBN= 963-9241-84-9 |ref=harv}}
*{{cite book |last=Barta |first=Gábor |editor1-last=Köpeczi |editor1-first=Béla |editor2-last=Barta |editor2-first=Gábor |editor3-last=Bóna |editor3-first=István |editor4-last=Makkai |editor4-first=László |editor5-last=Szász |editor5-first=Zoltán |editor6-last=Borus |editor6-first=Judit | title=History of Transylvania |publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó |year=1994 |pages=245–293 |chapter=The emergence of the principality and its first crises |isbn=963-05-6703-2|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book |last= Boia |first= Lucian |year=1997 |title= History and Myth in Romanian Consciousness |publisher= Central European University Press |ISBN= 963-9116-96-3 |ref=harv}}
*{{cite book |last1= Brezianu |first1= Andrei |last2= Spânu |first2= Vlad |year=2007 |title= Historical Dictionary of Moldova |publisher= The Scarecrow Press |ISBN= 978-0-8108-5607-3 |ref=harv}}
*{{cite book |last=Curta |first=Florin |year= 2006 |title=Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 500–1250 |url=https://archive.org/details/southeasterneuro0000curt |url-access=registration |publisher= Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-89452-4|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book |last=Engel |first=Pál |year=2001|title=The Realm of St Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895–1526 |publisher= I.B. Tauris Publishers |isbn=1-86064-061-3|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book |last=Fine |first=John V. A |year=1994 |title=The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest |publisher= The University of Michigan Press |isbn=0-472-08260-4|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book |last=Georgescu |first=Vlad |year=1991 |title=The Romanians: A History |publisher= Ohio State University Press |isbn=0-8142-0511-9 |ref=harv}}
*Klepper, Nicolae (2002). ''Romania: An Illustrated History''. Hippocrene Books. {{ISBN|978-0-7818-0935-1}}. {{Verify credibility|date=March 2011}}
*{{cite book |last=Kontler |first=László |year=1999 |title=Millennium in Central Europe: A History of Hungary |publisher=Atlantisz Publishing House |isbn=963-9165-37-9 |ref=harv}}
*{{cite book |last=Kristó |first=Gyula |year=2003 |title=Early Transylvania (895–1324) |publisher=Lucidus Kiadó |isbn=963-9465-12-7 |ref=harv}}
*{{cite book |last=Makkai |first=László |editor1-last=Köpeczi |editor1-first=Béla |editor2-last=Barta |editor2-first=Gábor |editor3-last=Bóna |editor3-first=István |editor4-last=Makkai |editor4-first=László |editor5-last=Szász |editor5-first=Zoltán |editor6-last=Borus |editor6-first=Judit | title=History of Transylvania |publisher=Akadémiai Kiadó |year=1994 |pages=178–244 |chapter=The emergence of the Estates (1172–1526) |isbn=963-05-6703-2|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book |last=Pop |first=Ioan-Aurel |year=1999 |title=Romanians and Romania: A Brief History |publisher=Boulder |isbn=0-88033-440-1 |ref=harv}}
*{{cite book |last=Pop |first=Ioan-Aurel |editor1-last=Pop|editor1-first=Ioan-Aurel |editor2-last=Bolovan |editor2-first=Ioan | title=History of Romania: Compendium |publisher=Romanian Cultural Institute (Center for Transylvanian Studies) |year=2005 |pages=209–314 |chapter=Romanians in the 14th–16th Centuries: From the "Christian Republic" to the "Restoration of Dacia" |isbn=978-973-7784-12-4|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book |last=Sălăgean |first=Tudor |editor1-last=Pop|editor1-first=Ioan-Aurel |editor2-last=Bolovan |editor2-first=Ioan | title=History of Romania: Compendium |publisher=Romanian Cultural Institute (Center for Transylvanian Studies) |year=2005 |pages=133–207 |chapter=Romanian Society in the Early Middle Ages (9th–14th Centuries AD) |isbn=978-973-7784-12-4|ref=harv}}
*Sedlar, Jean W. (1994). ''East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000–1500''. University of Washington Press. {{ISBN|0-295-97290-4}}.
*Spinei, Victor (2009). ''The Romanians and the Turkic Nomads North of the Danube Delta from the Tenth to the Mid-Thirteenth Century''. Brill. 978-90-04-17536-5.
*Treptow, Kurt W.; Popa, Marcel (1996). ''Historical Dictionary of Romania''. Scarecrow Press. {{ISBN|0-8108-3179-1}}.
*Treptow, Kurt W.; Bolovan, Ioan; Constantiniu, Florin; Michelson, Paul E.; Pop, Ioan Aurel; Popa, Cristian; Popa, Marcel; Scurtu, Ioan; Vultur, Marcela; Watts, Larry L. (1997). ''A History of Romania''. The Center for Romanian Studies. {{ISBN|973-98091-0-3}}.
*Vásáry, István (2005). ''Cumans and Tatars: Oriental Military in the Pre-Ottoman Balkans, 1185–1365''. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-83756-1}}.
== Further reading ==
*Castellan, Georges (1989). ''A History of the Romanians.'' The University of Michigan Press. {{ISBN|0-88033-154-2}}.
*Durandin, Catherine (1995). ''Historie des Roumains'' (The History of the Romanians). Librairie Artheme Fayard. {{ISBN|978-2-213-59425-5}}.
== External links ==
{{commons category|Medieval architecture in Romania}}
*Köpeczi, Béla; Makkai, László; Mócsy, András; Szász, Zoltán; Barta, Gábor. [http://mek.oszk.hu/03400/03407/html/ "History of Transylvania"].
*Nicolae, Adrian. [http://www.descopera.ro/cultura/2672794-cum-au-uitat-romanii-un-mileniu-de-istorie "Cum au uitat românii un mileniu de istorie I"]
*Nicolae, Adrian. [http://www.descopera.ro/cultura/2690442-cum-au-uitat-romanii-un-mileniu-de-istorie-ii "Cum au uitat românii un mileniu de istorie II"]
*Samuelson, James (1882). [http://biblior.net/roumania-past-and-present/roumania-past-and-present.html "Roumania: Past and Present"]
<div style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br />
<hr noshade style="font-size:1.4em; width:100%;"/>
< '''[[Romania in the Early Middle Ages|Early Middle Ages]] | [[History of Romania]] | [[Early Modern Romania|Early Modern Times]] ''' >
<hr noshade style="font-size:1.4em; width:100%;"/>
</div>
{{Romanian topics}}
{{Middle Ages by region|state=uncollapsed}}
{{Middle Ages|state=uncollapsed}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Romania In The Middle Ages}}
[[Category:Medieval Romania| 01]]
[[Category:History of Romania by period|Middle Ages]]
[[Category:Romanian principalities]]
|
