«Մասնակից:Արսենյան Գոհար/Ավազարկղ»–ի խմբագրումների տարբերություն

Olivine rock is usually harder than surrounding rock and stands out as distinct ridges in the terrain. These ridges are often dry with little soil. Drought resistant [[scots pine]] is one of few trees that thrive on olivine rock. Olivine pine forest is unique to Norway. It is rare and found on dry olivine ridges in the fjord districts of Sunnmøre and Nordfjord. Olivine rock is hard and base-rich.

 

[[File:Papakolea Beach sand high mag 052915.jpg|thumb|left|Olivine grains that eroded from [[lava]] on [[Papakolea Beach]], [[Hawaii]]]]

[[File:Peridot in basalt.jpg|thumb|Light green olivine crystals in peridotite xenoliths in basalt from Arizona]]

[[File:PIA16217-MarsCuriosityRover-1stXRayView-20121017.jpg|thumb|150px|left|First [[X-ray crystallography#Mineralogy and metallurgy|X-ray view]] of [[Martian soil]] – [[feldspar]], [[pyroxenes]], olivine revealed ([[Curiosity rover]] at "[[Rocknest (Mars)|Rocknest]]", October 17, 2012).<ref name="NASA-20121030">{{cite web|last=Brown|first=Dwayne|title=NASA Rover's First Soil Studies Help Fingerprint Martian Minerals|url=http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2012/oct/HQ_12-383_Curiosity_CheMin.html|date=October 30, 2012|publisher=[[NASA]]|accessdate=October 31, 2012|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170311192437/https://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2012/oct/HQ_12-383_Curiosity_CheMin.html|archivedate=March 11, 2017}}</ref>]]

 

Mg-rich olivine has also been discovered in [[meteorite]]s,<ref>[http://www.farlang.com/art/gemstone-meteorites Fukang and other Pallasites] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081221151620/http://www.farlang.com/art/gemstone-meteorites |date=2008-12-21}}. Farlang.com (2008-04-30). Retrieved on 2012-06-16.</ref> on the [[Moon]]<ref name="MareBasalt1">{{cite web | url=https://curator.jsc.nasa.gov/lunar/letss/mare3.pdf | title=Mare Basalt Volcanism | publisher=[[NASA]] | work=NASA Lunar Petrographic Educational Thin Section Set | date=2003 | accessdate=23 October 2016 | author=Meyer, C. | url-status=live | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221110429/https://curator.jsc.nasa.gov/lunar/letss/mare3.pdf | archivedate=21 December 2016}}</ref> and [[Mars]],<ref>[http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/Nov03/olivine.html Pretty Green Mineral....] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070504025123/http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/Nov03/olivine.html |date=2007-05-04}}[http://deepimpact.umd.edu/gallery/313_635_F3.html Mission Update 2006...] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100605183617/http://deepimpact.umd.edu/gallery/313_635_F3.html |date=2010-06-05}} UMD Deep Impact Website, University of Maryland Ball Aerospace & Technology Corp. retrieved June 1, 2010</ref><ref>Hoefen, T.M., et al. 2003. "Discovery of Olivine in the Nili Fossae Region of Mars". ''Science'' 302, 627–30. "{{cite journal |title=Discovery of Olivine in the Nili Fossae Region of Mars |journal=Science |volume=302 |issue=5645 |pages=627–630 |df= |doi=10.1126/science.1089647 |year=2003 |last1=Hoefen |first1=T. M. |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1230836 |bibcode=2003Sci...302..627H |pmid=14576430}}"</ref> falling into infant stars,<ref>[http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/spitzer/news/spitzer20110526.html Spitzer Sees Crystal Rain...] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110529000009/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/spitzer/news/spitzer20110526.html |date=2011-05-29}} NASA Website</ref> as well as on asteroid [[25143 Itokawa]].<ref>[http://www.spaceflightnow.com/news/n1011/16hayabusa/ Japan says Hayabusa brought back asteroid grains...] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101118234721/http://www.spaceflightnow.com/news/n1011/16hayabusa/ |date=2010-11-18}} retrieved November 18, 2010</ref> Such meteorites include [[chondrite]]s, collections of debris from the early [[Solar System]]; and [[pallasite]]s, mixes of iron-nickel and olivine.

 

The [[spectral signature]] of olivine has been seen in the dust disks around young stars. The tails of comets (which formed from the dust disk around the young [[Sun]]) often have the spectral signature of olivine, and the presence of olivine was verified in samples of a comet from the [[Stardust (spacecraft)#Sample analysis|Stardust spacecraft]] in 2006.<ref>[http://stardust.jpl.nasa.gov/news/status/060313.html Press Release 06-091] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060828230900/http://stardust.jpl.nasa.gov/news/status/060313.html |date=2006-08-28}}. Jet Propulsion Laboratory Stardust website, retrieved May 30, 2006.</ref> Comet-like (magnesium-rich) olivine has also been detected in the [[planetesimal]] belt around the star [[Beta Pictoris]].<ref name="deVries2012">{{Cite journal | last1=De Vries | first1=B. L. | last2=Acke | first2=B. | last3=Blommaert | first3=J. A. D. L. | last4=Waelkens | first4=C. | last5=Waters | first5=L. B. F. M. | last6=Vandenbussche | first6=B. | last7=Min | first7=M. | last8=Olofsson | first8=G. | last9=Dominik | first9=C. | last10=Decin | doi=10.1038/nature11469 | first10=L. | last11=Barlow | first11=M. J. | last12=Brandeker | first12=A. | last13=Di Francesco | first13=J. | last14=Glauser | first14=A. M. | last15=Greaves | first15=J. | last16=Harvey | first16=P. M. | last17=Holland | first17=W. S. | last18=Ivison | first18=R. J. | last19=Liseau | first19=R. | last20=Pantin | first20=E. E. | last21=Pilbratt | first21=G. L. | last22=Royer | first22=P. | last23=Sibthorpe | first23=B. | title=Comet-like mineralogy of olivine crystals in an extrasolar proto-Kuiper belt | journal=Nature | volume=490 | issue=7418 | pages=74–76 | year=2012 | pmid=23038467 | pmc=| url=http://211.144.68.84:9998/91keshi/Public/File/34/490-7418/pdf/nature11469.pdf | arxiv=1211.2626 | bibcode=2012Natur.490...74D}}{{dead link|date=January 2018 | bot=InternetArchiveBot | fix-attempted=yes}}</ref>

 

[[File:Atomic structure of olivine 1.png|left|thumb|'''Figure 1:''' The atomic scale structure of olivine looking along the ''a'' axis. Oxygen is shown in red, silicon in pink, and magnesium/iron in blue. A projection of the unit cell is shown by the black rectangle.]]

Minerals in the olivine group crystallize in the [[orthorhombic]] system ([[space group]] P''bnm'') with isolated silicate tetrahedra, meaning that olivine is a [[Silicate minerals|nesosilicate]]. In an alternative view, the atomic structure can be described as a hexagonal, close-packed array of oxygen [[ion]]s with half of the octahedral sites occupied with magnesium or iron ions and one-eighth of the tetrahedral sites occupied by silicon ions.

There are three distinct oxygen sites (marked O1, O2 and O3 in figure 1), two distinct metal sites (M1 and M2) and only one distinct silicon site. O1, O2, M2 and Si all lie on [[mirror plane]]s, while M1 exists on an inversion center. O3 lies in a general position.

 

At the high temperatures and pressures found at depth within the Earth the olivine structure is no longer stable. Below depths of about {{convert|410|km|abbr=on}} olivine undergoes an exothermic [[phase transition]] to the [[silicate minerals|sorosilicate]], [[wadsleyite]] and, at about {{convert|520|km|abbr=on}} depth, wadsleyite transforms exothermically into [[ringwoodite]], which has the [[spinel]] structure. At a depth of about {{convert|660|km|abbr=on}}, ringwoodite decomposes into [[silicate perovskite]] ((Mg,Fe)SiO₃) and [[ferropericlase]] ((Mg,Fe)O) in an endothermic reaction. These phase transitions lead to a discontinuous increase in the density of the Earth's [[mantle (geology)|mantle]] that can be observed by [[seismic]] methods. They are also thought to influence the dynamics of [[mantle convection]] in that the exothermic transitions reinforce flow across the phase boundary, whereas the endothermic reaction hampers it.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Christensen|first=U.R.|title=Effects of phase transitions on mantle convection|journal=Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci.|year=1995|volume=23|pages=65–87|doi=10.1146/annurev.ea.23.050195.000433|bibcode = 1995AREPS..23...65C}}</ref>

 

|isbn = 978-0-582-30094-1}}</ref> At {{convert|800|C|K F}}, the pure magnesium end member, forsterite, transforms to wadsleyite at {{convert|11.8|GPa|atm|lk=on}} and to ringwoodite at pressures above {{convert|14|GPa|atm|abbr=on|sigfig=3}}. Increasing the iron content decreases the pressure of the phase transition and narrows the [[wadsleyite]] stability field. At about 0.8 [[mole fraction]] fayalite, olivine transforms directly to ringwoodite over the pressure range {{convert|10.0|to(-)|11.5|GPa|atm|abbr=on}}. Fayalite transforms to {{chem|Fe|2|SiO|4}} spinel at pressures below {{convert|5|GPa|atm|abbr=on}}. Increasing the temperature increases the pressure of these phase transitions.

 

[[File:Iddingsite.JPG|thumb|Olivine altered to iddingsite within a [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]] [[xenolith]].]]

Olivine is one of the weaker common minerals on the surface according to the [[Goldich dissolution series]]. It alters into [[iddingsite]] (a combination of clay minerals, iron oxides and [[ferrihydrite]]s) readily in the presence of water.<ref>{{cite journal | author1 = Kuebler, K. | author2 = Wang, A. | author3 = Haskin, L. A. | author4 = Jolliff, B. L. | url = http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2003/pdf/1953.pdf | title = A Study of Olivine Alteration to Iddingsite Using Raman Spectroscopy | journal = Lunar and Planetary Science | year = 2003 | volume = 34 | page = 1953 | url-status = live | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20121025024139/http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2003/pdf/1953.pdf | archivedate = 2012-10-25 | bibcode = 2003LPI....34.1953K}}</ref> Artificially increasing the weathering rate of olivine, e.g. by dispersing fine-grained olivine on beaches, has been proposed as a cheap way to sequester CO₂.<ref>{{cite web |author1= Goldberg, Philip |author2= Chen Zhong-Yin |author3= Connor, William'O |author4= Walters, Richards |author5= Ziock, Hans |title= CO2 Mineral Sequestration Studies in US |date= 2001 |url= https://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/proceedings/01/carbon_seq/6c1.pdf |url-status= dead |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20161221131438/http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/proceedings/01/carbon_seq/6c1.pdf |archivedate= 2016-12-21 |access-date= 2016-12-19}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author1=Schuiling, R.D.|author2=Tickell, O.|title=Olivine against climate change and ocean acidification|url=http://www.innovationconcepts.eu/res/literatuurSchuiling/olivineagainstclimatechange23.pdf|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160927013859/http://www.innovationconcepts.eu/res/literatuurSchuiling/olivineagainstclimatechange23.pdf|archivedate=2016-09-27}}</ref> The presence of iddingsite on Mars would suggest that liquid water once existed there, and might enable scientists to determine when there was last liquid water on the planet.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Swindle | first1=T. D. | last2=Treiman | first2=A. H. | last3=Lindstrom | first3=D. J. | last4=Burkland | first4=M. K. | last5=Cohen | first5=B. A. | last6=Grier | first6=J. A. | last7=Li | first7=B. | last8=Olson | first8=E. K. | title=Noble Gases in Iddingsite from the Lafayette meteorite: Evidence for Liquid water on Mars in the last few hundred million years | journal=Meteoritics and Planetary Science | year=2000 | volume=35 | issue=1 | pages=107–15 | doi=10.1111/j.1945-5100.2000.tb01978.x | bibcode=2000M&PS...35..107S}}</ref>

 

Norway is the main source of olivine in Europe, particularly in an area stretching from [[Åheim]] to [[Tafjord]], and from [[Hornindal]] to [[Flemsøy]] in the [[Sunnmøre]] district. There is also olivine in [[Eid, Norway|Eid]] municipality. About 50% of the world's olivine for industrial use is produced in Norway. At Svarthammaren in [[Norddal]] olivine was mined from around 1920 to 1979, with a daily output up to 600 metric tons. Olivine was also obtained from the construction site of the hydro power stations in Tafjord. At Robbervika in Norddal municipality an open-pit mine has been in operation since 1984. The characteristic red color is reflected in several local names with "red" such as ''Raudbergvik'' (Red rock bay) or ''Raudnakken'' (Red ridge).<ref>Furseth, Astor (1987): ''Norddal i 150 år''. Valldal: Norddal kommune.</ref><ref>[[Geological Survey of Norway]]. ''[https://geo.ngu.no/kart/mineralressurser/ Kart over mineralressurser] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014020956/http://geo.ngu.no/kart/mineralressurser/ |date=2017-10-14}}''. Accessed 9.12.2012.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ngu.no/fagomrade/olivin|title=Olivin|website=www.ngu.no|language=nb|access-date=2017-11-09|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171110115920/http://www.ngu.no/fagomrade/olivin|archivedate=2017-11-10}}</ref><ref>Gjelsvik, T. (1951). ''[http://www.ngu.no/FileArchive/NGUPublikasjoner/NGUnr_179_Gjelsvik.pdf Oversikt over bergartene i Sunnmøre og tilgrensende deler av Nordfjord] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171110005426/http://www.ngu.no/FileArchive/NGUPublikasjoner/NGUnr_179_Gjelsvik.pdf |date=2017-11-10}}''. Norge geologiske undersøkelser, report 179.</ref>

 

[[Kallskaret]] near Tafjord is a nature reserve with olivine.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://snl.no/Kallskaret|title=Kallskaret|date=28 September 2014|accessdate=3 May 2018|via=Store norske leksikon|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171110114348/https://snl.no/Kallskaret|archivedate=10 November 2017}}</ref>

 

A worldwide search is on for cheap processes to [[Carbon sequestration|sequester CO₂]] by mineral reactions, called [[enhanced weathering]]. Removal by reactions with olivine is an attractive option, because it is widely available and reacts easily with the (acid) CO₂ from the atmosphere. When olivine is [[Comminution|crushed]], it weathers completely within a few years, depending on the grain size. All the CO₂ that is produced by burning one liter of oil can be sequestered by less than one liter of olivine. The reaction is exothermic but slow. To recover the heat produced by the reaction to produce electricity, a large volume of olivine must be thermally well-isolated. The end-products of the reaction are [[silicon dioxide]], [[magnesium carbonate]], and small amounts of iron oxide.<ref>{{cite journal | author1=Goldberg, P. | author2=Chen, Z.-Y. | author3=O'Connor, W. | author4=Walters, R. | author5=Ziock, H. | url=http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/proceedings/01/carbon_seq/6c1.pdf | title=CO₂ Mineral Sequestration Studies in US | journal=Technology | year=2000 | volume=1 | issue=1 | pages=1–10 | url-status=dead | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20031207120418/http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/proceedings/01/carbon_seq/6c1.pdf | archivedate=2003-12-07 | access-date=2008-07-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | title=Enhanced Weathering: An Effective and Cheap Tool to Sequester CO₂ | year=2006 | last1=Schuiling | first1=R. D. | last2=Krijgsman | first2=P. | journal=Climatic Change | volume=74 | issue=1–3 | pages=349–54 | doi=10.1007/s10584-005-3485-y}}</ref>

 

{{ծանցանկ}}

 

{{Commons category|Olivine}}

* [http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/Nov03/olivine.html Pretty Green Mineral – Pretty Dry Mars?] by Linda M.V. Martel, Planetary Science Research Discoveries, Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology

* [http://www.und.nodak.edu/instruct/mineral/320petrology/opticalmin/olivine.htm Geological information and several microscopic images] University of North Dakota